W.Scott  Thomas 


EDUCATJwN  d;"FT 


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EDITED   BY 

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Volume  XXL 


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INTERNATIONAL  EDVGA^ON  SERIES 


THE 


MORAL    INSTRUCTION 
OF    CHILDREN 


BY 

FELIX    ADLER 


NEW    YORK 

D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY 

1895 


Copyright,  1892, 
By  D.   APPLETON  AND  COMPANY. 

t 

EDUCATION  DEPT. 


Electrotyped  and  Printed 

AT  THE  APPLETON  PrESS,  U.  S.  A. 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE. 


Moral  education  is  everywhere  acknowledged 
to  be  the  most  important  part  of  all  education ;  but 
there  has  not  been  the  same  agreement  in  regard  to 
the  best  means  of  securing  it  in  the  school.  This 
has  been  due  in  part  to  a  want  of  insight  into  the  two- 
fold nature  of  this  sort  of  education  ;  for  instruction 
in  morals  includes  two  things :  the  formation  of  right 
ideas  and  the  formation  of  right  habits.  Eight 
ideas  are  necessary  to  guide  the  will,  but  right 
habits  are  the  product  of  the  will  itself. 

It  is  possible  to  have  right  ideas  to  some  extent 
without  the  corresponding  moral  habits.  On  this 
account  the  formation  of  correct  habits  has  been 
esteemed  by  some  to  be  the  chief  thing.  But  un- 
conscious habits — mere  use  and  wont — do  not  seem 
to  deserve  the  title  of  moral  in  its  highest  sense. 
The  moral  act  should  be  a  considerate  one,  and  rest 
on  the  adoption  of  principles  to  guide  one's  actions. 

To  those  who  lay  stress  on  the  practical  side  and 
demand  the  formation  of  correct  habits,  the  school 
as  it  is  seems  to  be  a  great  ethical  instrumentality. 
To  those  who  see  in  theoretical  instruction  the  only 

(V) 

580066 


vi  MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

true  basis  of  moral  character,  the  existing  school 
methods  seem  sadly  deficient. 

The  school  as  it  is  looks  first  after  its  discipline, 
and  next  after  its  instruction.  Discipline  concerns 
the  behavior,  and  instruction  concerns  the  intellect- 
ual progress  of  the  pupil.  That  part  of  moral  edu- 
cation which  relates  to  habits  of  good  ])ehavior  is 
much  better  provided  for  in  the  school  than  any 
part  of  intellectual  education. 

There  is,  however,  a  conflict  here  between  old 
and  new  ideals.  The  old-fashioned  school  regarded 
obedience  to  authority  the  one  essential;  the  new 
ideal  regards  insight  into  the  reasonableness  of 
moral  commands  the  chief  end.  It  is  said,  with 
truth,  that  a  habit  of  unreasoning  obedience  does 
not  fit  one  for  the  exigencies  of  modern  life,  with  its 
partisan  appeals  to  the  individual  and  its  perpetual 
display  of  grounds  and  reasons,  specious  and  other- 
wise, in  the  newspapers.  The  unreasoning  obedi- 
ence to  a  moral  guide  in  school  may  become  in  after 
life  unreasoning  obedience  to  a  demagogue  or  to  a 
leader  in  crime. 

It  is  not  obedience  to  external  authority  that  we 
need  so  much  as  enlightened  moral  sense,  and  yet 
there  remains  and  will  remain  much  good  in  the 
old-fashioned  habit  of  implicit  obedience. 

The  new  education  aims  at  building  up  self-con- 
trol and  individual  insight.  It  substitutes  the  inter- 
nal authority  of  conscience  for  the  external  authority 
of  the  master.  It  claims  by  this  to  educate  the  citi- 
zen fitted  for  the  exercise  of  suffrage  in  a  free  gov- 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  vii 

ernment.  He  will  weigh  political  and  social  ques- 
tions in  his  mind,  and  decide  for  himself.  He  will 
be  apt  to  reject  the  scheme  of  the  demagogue. 
"While  the  old-fashioned  school-master  relied  on  the 
rod  to  sustain  his  external  authority,  he  produced,  it 
is  said,  a  reaction  against  all  authority  in  the  minds 
of  strong-willed  pupils.  The  new  education  saves 
the  strong-willed  pupil  from  this  tension  against 
constituted  authority,  and  makes  him  law-abiding 
from  the  beginning.  ' 

It  will  be  admitted  that  the  school  under  both 
its  forms — old  as  well  as  new — secures  in  the  main 
the  formation  of  the  cardinal  moral  habits.  It  is 
obliged  to  insist  on  regularity,  punctuality,  silence, 
and  industry  as  indispensable  for  the  performance  of 
its  school  tasks.  A  private  tutor  may  permit  his 
charge  to  neglect  all  these  things,  and  yet  secure 
some  progress  in  studies  carried  on  by  fits  and 
starts,  with  noise  and  zeal  to-day,  followed  by  in- 
dolence to-morrow.  But  a  school,  on  account  of  its 
numbers,  must  insist  on  the  semi-mechanical  virtues 
of  regularity,  punctuality,  silence,  and  industry. 
Although  these  are  semi-mechanical  in  their  nature, 
for  with  much  practice  they  become  unconscious 
habits,  yet  they  furnish  the  very  ground-work  of  all 
combinations  of  man  with  his  fellow-men.  They  are 
fundamental  conditions  of  social  life.  The  increase 
of  city  population,  consequent  on  the  growth  of 
productive  industry  and  the  substitution  of  machines 
for  hand  labor,  renders  necessary  the  universal  preva- 
lence of  these  cardinal  virtues  of  the  school. 


viii       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

Even  the  management  of  machines  requires  that 
sort  of  alertness  which  comes  from  regularity  and 
punctuality.  The  travel  on  the  railroad,  the  man- 
agement of  steam-engines,  the  necessities  of  con- 
certed action,  require  punctuality  and  rhythmic 
action. 

The  school  habit  of  silence  means  considerate 
regard  for  the  rights  of  fellow-workmen.  They 
must  not  be  interfered  with  ;  their  attention  must 
not  be  distracted  from  their  several  tasks.  A  ra- 
tional self-restraint  grows  out  of  this  school  habit — 
rational,  because  it  rests  on  considerateness  for  the 
work  of  others.  This  is  a  great  lesson  in  co-opera- 
tion. Morals  in  their  essence  deal  with  the  relation 
of  man  to  his  fellow-men,  and  rest  on  a  considerate- 
ness for  the  rights  of  others.  "Do  unto  others," 
etc.,  sums  up  the  moral  code. 

Industry,  likewise,  takes  a  high  rank  as  a  citi- 
zen's virtue.  By  it  man  learns  to  re-enforce  the 
moments  by  the  hours,  and  the  days  by  the  years. 
He  learns  how  the  puny  individual  can  conquer 
great  obstacles.  The  school  demands  of  the  youth 
a  difficult  kind  of  industry.  He  must  think  and 
remember,  giving  close  and  unremitting  attention 
to  subjects  strange  and  far  off  from  his  daily  life. 
He  must  do  this  in  order  to  discover  eventually  that 
these  stratige  and  far-off  matters  are  connected  in  a 
close  manner  to  his  own  history  and  destiny. 

There  is  another  phase  of  the  pupil's  industry 
that  has  an  important  bearing  on  morals.  All  his 
intellectual  work  in  the  class  has  to  do  with  critical 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  Jx 

accuracy,  and  respect  for  the  truth.  Loose  state- 
ments and  careless  logical  inference  meet  with 
severe  reproof. 

Finally,  there  is  an  enforced  politeness  and  court- 
esy toward  teachers  and  fellow-pupils — at  least  to 
the  extent  of  preventing  quarrels.  This  is  directly 
tributary  to  the  highest  of  virtues,  namely,  kindness 
and  generosity. 

All  these  moral  phases  mentioned  have  to  do 
with  the  side  of  school  discipline  rather  than  in- 
struction, and  they  do  not  necessarily  have  any  bear- 
ing on  the  theory  of  morals  or  on  ethical  philoso23hy, 
except  in  the  fact  that  they  make  a  very  strong  im- 
pression on  the  mind  of  the  youth,  and  cause  him  to 
feel  that  he  is  a  member  of  a  moral  order.  He 
learns  that  moral  demands  are  far  more  stern  than 
the  demands  of  the  body  for  food  or  drink  or  re- 
pose. The  school  thus  does  much  to  change  the 
pupil  from  a  natural  being  to  a  spiritual  being. 
Physical  nature  becomes  subordinated  to  the  inter- 
ests of  human  nature. 

Notwitlistanding  the  fact  that  the  school  is  so 
efficient  as  a  means  of  training  in  moral  habits,  it  is 
as  yet  only  a  small  influence  in  the  realm  of  moral 
theory.  Even  our  colleges  and  universities,  it  must 
be  confessed,  do  little  in  this  respect,  although  there 
has  been  of  late  an  effort  to  increase  in  the  pro- 
grammes the  amount  of  time  devoted  to  ethical  study. 
The  cause  of  this  is  the  divorce  of  moral  theory  from 
theology.  All  was  easy  so  long  as  ethics  was  direct- 
ly associated  with  the  prevailing  religious  confes- 


X  MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF   CHILDREN. 

sion.  The  separation  of  Church  and  State,  slow- 
ly progressing  everywhere  since  the  middle  ages, 
has  at  length  touched  the  question  of  education. 

The  attempt  to  find  an  independent  basis  for 
ethics  in  the  science  of  sociology  has  developed 
conflicting  systems.  The  college  student  is  rarely 
strengthened  in  his  faith  in  moral  theories  by  his 
theoretic  study.  Too  often  his  faith  is  sapped. 
Those  who  master  a  spiritual  philosophy  are 
strengthened ;  the  many  who  drift  toward  a  so- 
called  "  scientific  "  basis  are  led  to  weaken  their  moral 
convictions  to  the  standpoint  of  fashion,  or  custom, 
or  utility. 

Meanwhile  the  demand  of  the  age  to  separate 
Church  from  State  becomes  more  and  more  exact- 
ing. Religious  instruction  has  almost  entirely 
ceased  in  the  public  schools,  and  it  is  rapidly  disap- 
pearing from  the  programmes  of  colleges  and  pre- 
paratory schools,  and  few  academies  are  now  scenes 
of  religious  revival,  as  once  was  common. 

The  publishers  of  this  series  are  glad,  therefore, 
to  offer  a  book  so  timely  and  full  of  helpful  sugges- 
tions as  this  of  Mr.  Adler.  It  is  hoped  that  it 
may  open  for  many  teachers  a  new  road  to  theoretic 
instruction  in  morality,  and  at  the  same  time  re- 
enforce  the  study  of  literature  in  our  schools. 

W.  T.  Harris. 

Washington,  D.  C,  July,  1892, 


PEEFATORY   NOTE. 


The  following  lectures  were  delivered  in  the 
School  of  Applied  Ethics  during  its  first  session  in 
1891,  at  Plymouth,  Mass.  A  few  of  the  lectures 
have  been  condensed,  in  order  to  bring  more  clearly 
into  view  the  logical  scheme  which  underlies  the 
plan  of  instruction  here  outlined.  The  others  are 
published  substantially  as  delivered. 

I  am  deeply  conscious  of  the  difficulties  of  the 
problem  which  I  have  ventured  to  approach,  and 
realize  that  any  contribution  toward  its  solution,  at 
the  present  time,  must  be  most  imperfect.  I  should, 
for  my  part,  have  preferred  to  wait  longer  before 
submitting  my  thought  to  teachers  and  parents. 
But  I  have  been  persuaded  that  even  in  its  present 
shape  it  may  be  of  some  use.  I  earnestly  hope 
that,  at  all  events,  it  may  serve  to  help  on  the  rising 
tide  of  interest  in  moral  education,  and  may  stimu- 
late to  further  inquiry. 

Felix  Adler. 

(xi) 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTORY  LECTURES. 

PAGE 

I.  The  Problem  of  Unsectarian  Moral  Instruction        .  3 

II.  The  Efficient  Motives  of  Good  Conduct    ...  17 

III.  Opportunities  for   Moral   Training   in    the   Daily 

School 27 

IV.  The  Classification  of  Duties 37 

V.  The  Moral  Outfit  of  Children  on  entering  School    -.  47 

PRIMARY  COURSE. 

YI.  The  Use  of  Fairy  Tales 64 

VII.  The  Use  of  Fables 80 

VIII.  Supplementary  Remarks  on  Fables   ....  96 

IX.  Selected  Stories  from  the  Bible  .        .        .        .        .  106 

X.  The  Odyssey  and  the  Iliad 146 

GRAMMAR  COURSE. 
Lessons  on  Duty. 

XI.  The  Duty  of  acquiring  Knowledge    .        .        .        .  169 
Xll.  Duties  which  relate  to  the  Physical  Life  and  the 

Feelings 185 

XIII.  Duties  which  relate  to  Others  (Filial  and  Fraternal 

Duties) 202 

XIV.  Duties  toward  all  Men  (Justice  and  Charity)    .        .218 
XV.  The  Elements  of  Civic  Duty 236 

XVI.  The  Use  of  Proverbs  and  Speeches    ....  245 

XVII.  Individualization  of  Moral  Teaching        .        .        .  249 

APPENDIX. 

The  Influence  of  Manual  Training  on  Character        .        .  257 

(xiii) 


INTRODUCTOEY  LECTURES, 


I. 

THE   PROBLEM 
OF  UNSECTAEIAN  MOEAL  INSTEUCTIOK 

It  will  be  the  aim  of  the  present  qoiirse  of  lect- 
ures to  give  in  outline  the  subject-matter  of  moral 
instruction  for  children  from  six  to  fourteen  or  fif- 
teen years  of  age,  and  to  discuss  the  methods  accord- 
ing to  which  this  kind  of  instruction  should  be  im- 
parted. At  the  outset,  however,  we  are  confronted 
by  what  certainly  is  a  grave  difficulty,  and  to  many 
may  appear  an  insuperable  one.  The  opinion  is 
widely  held  that  morality  depends  on  religious  sanc- 
tions, and  that  right  conduct  can  not  be  taught — es- 
pecially not  to  children — except  it  be  under  the  au- 
thority of  some  sort  of  religious  belief.  To  those 
who  think  in  this  way  the  very  phrase,  unsectarian 
moral  teaching,  is  suspicious,  as  savoring  of  infidel- 
ity. And  the  attempt  to  mark  off  a  neutral  moral 
zone,  outside  the  domains  of  the  churches,  is  apt 
to  be  regarded  as  masking  a  covert  design  on  re- 
ligion itself. 

The  principle  of  unsectarian  moral  instruction, 
however,  is  neither  irreligious  nor  anti-religious.  In 
fact — as  will  appear  later  on — it  rests  on  purely 
educational  grounds,  with  which  the  religious  bias 
of  the  educator  has  nothing  whatever  to  do.     But 

(3) 


4  MORAL   INSTRUCTION  OF   CHILDREN. 

tiiore  are  also  grontjds  of  expediency  wliich,  at  least 
in  the  United  States,  compel  ns,  whetlier  we  care  to 
do  so  or  not,  to  face  this  problem  of  unsectarian 
moral  education,  and  to  these  let  us  first  give  onr  at- 
tention. Even  if  we  were  to  admit,  for  argument's 
sake,  the  correctness  of  the  proposition  that  moral 
truths  can  only  be  taught  as  corollaries  of  some  form 
of  religious  belief,  the  question  would  at  once  present 
itself  to  the  educator.  To  which  form  of  religious 
belief  shall  he  give  the  preference  ?  I  am  speaking 
now  of  the  public  schools  of  the  United  States. 

These  schools  are  supported  out  of  the  general 
fund  of  taxation  to  which  all  citizens  are  compelled 
to  contribute.  Clearly  it  would  be  an  act  of  gross 
injustice  to  force  a  citizen  belonging  to  one  denomi- 
nation to  pay  for  instilling  the  doctrines  of  some 
other  into  the  minds  of  the  young — in  other  words, 
to  compel  him  to  support  and  assist  in  spreading 
religious  ideas  in  which  he  does  not  believe.  This 
would  be  an  outrage  on  the  freedom  of  conscience. 
But  the  act  of  injustice  would  become  simply  mon- 
strous if  parents  were  to  be  compelled  to  help  indoc- 
trinate their  own  children  with  such  religious  opin- 
ions as  are  repugnant  to  them. 

There  is  no  state  religion  in  the  United  States. 
In  the  eyes  of  the  state  all  shades  of  belief  and  dis- 
belief are  on  a  par.  There  are  in  this  country 
Catholics,  Episcopalians,  Presbyterians,  Methodists, 
Baptists,  Jews,  etc.  They  are  alike  citizens.  They 
contribute  alike  toward  the  maintenance  of  the  pub- 
lic  schools.      With   what   show   of  fairness,   then, 


UNSECTARIAN  MORAL   INSTRUCTION.  5 

could  the  belief  of  any  one  of  tliese  sects  be  adopted 
by  the  state  as  a  basis  for  the  inculcation  of  moral 
truths  ?  The  case  seems,  on  the  face  of  it,  a  hope- 
less one.  But  the  following  devices  have  been  sug- 
gested to  remove,  or  rather  to  circumvent,  the  diffi- 
culty. 

First  Device. — Let  representatives  of  the  various 
theistic  churches,  including  Catholics,  Pi^otestants, 
and  Jews,  meet  in  council.  Let  them  eliminate  all 
those  points  in  respect  to  which  they  differ,  and 
formulate  a  common  creed  containing  only  those 
articles  on  w^hich  they  can  agree.  Such  a  creed 
would  include,  for  instance,  the  belief  in  the  exist- 
ence of  Deity,  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and 
in  future  reward  and  punishment.  Upon  this  as  a 
foundation  let  the  edifice  of  moral  instruction  be 
erected.  There  are,  however,  two  obvious  objections 
to  this  plan.  In  the  first  place,  this  "  Dreibund  " 
of  Catholicism,  Protestantism,  and  Judaism  would 
leave  out  of  account  the  party  of  the  agnostics, 
w^liose  views  may  indeed  be  erroneous,  or  even  de- 
testable, but  whose  rights  as  citizens  ought  not  the 
less  on  that  account  to  be  respected.  "  Neminerri 
IcBde^^  hurt  no  one,  is  a  cardinal  rule  of  justice, 
and  should  be  observed  by  the  friends  of  religion 
in  their  dealings  with  their  opponents  as  well  as  with 
one  another.  The  agnostic  party  has  grown  to 
quite  considerable  dimensions  in  the  United  States. 
But,  if  it  had  not,  if  there  were  only  a  single  person 
who  held  such  opinions,  and  he  a  citizen,  any  attempt 
on  the  part  of  the  majority  to  trample  upon  the 


6  MORAL   INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

riglits  of  this  one  person  would  still  be  inexcusable. 
In  the  sphere  of  political  action  the  majority  rules, 
and  must  rule ;  in  matters  that  touch  the  conscience 
the  smallest  minority  possesses  rights  on  which  even 
an  overwhelming  majority  arrayed  on  the  opposite 
side  can  not  afford  to  trespass.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  notable  achievements  of  the  American  com- 
monwealths that  they  have  so  distinctly  separated 
between  the  domain  of  rehgion  and  of  politics, 
adopting  in  the  one  case  the  maxim  of  coercion  by 
majority  rule,  in  the  other  allowing  the  full  measure 
of  individual  liberty.  From  this  standpomt  there 
should  be  no  departure. 

But  the  second  objection  is  even  more  cogent.  It 
is  proposed  to  eliminate  the  differences  wliich  sepa- 
rate the  various  sects,  and  to  formulate  their  points 
of  agreement  into  a  common  creed.  But  does  it 
not  occur  to  those  who  propose  this  plan  that  the 
very  life  of  a  religion  is  to  be  found  precisely  in 
those  points  in  which  it  differs  from  its  neighbors, 
and  that  an  abstract  scheme  of  belief,  such  as  has 
been  sketched,  would,  in  truth,  satisfy  no  one? 
Thus,  out  of  respect  for  the  sentiments  of  the  Jews, 
it  is  proposed  to  omit  the  doctrines  of  tlie  divinity 
of  Christ  and  of  the  atonement.  But  would  any 
earnest  Christian  give  his  assent,  even  provisionally, 
to  a  creed  from  which  those  quintessential  doc- 
trines of  Christianity  have  been  left  out?  When 
the  Christian  maintains  that  morality  must  be  based 
on  religion,  does  he  not  mean,  above  all,  on  the  belief 
in  Christ  ?     Is  it  not  indispensable,  from  his  point 


UNSECTARIAN   MORAL  INSTRUCTION.  7 

of  view,  that  the  figure  of  the  Saviour  shall  stand  in 
the  foreground  of  moral  inculcation  and  exhortation  ? 
Again,  wlien  the  Catholic  affirms  that  the  moral 
teaching  of  the  young  must  be  based  on  religion,  is 
it  to  be  supposed  for  an  instant  that  he  would  accept 
as  satisfying  his  conception  of  religion  a  skeleton 
creed  like  that  above  mentioned,  denuded  of  all 
those  peculiar  dogmas  which  make  religion  in  his 
eyes  beautiful  and  dear  ?  This  first  device,  there- 
fore, is  to  be  rejected.  It  is  unjust  to  the  agnostics, 
and  it  will  never  content  the  really  religious  persons 
of  any  denomination.  It  could  prove  acceptable 
only  to  theists  pure  and  simple,  whose  creed  is 
practically  limited  to  the  three  articles  mentioned ; 
namely,  the  belief  in  Deity,  immortality,  and  future 
punishment  and  reward.  But  this  class  constitutes 
a  small  fraction  of  the  community  ;  and  it  would  be 
absurd,  under  the  specious  plea  of  reconciling  the 
various  creeds,  in  effect  to  impose  the  rationalistic 
opinions  of  a  few  on  the  whole  community. 

The  second  device  seems  to  promise  better  results. 
It  provides  that  religious  and  moral  instruction  com- 
bined shall  be  given  in  the  public  schools  under  the 
auspices  of  the  several  denominations.  According 
to  this  plan,  the  pupils  are  to  be  divided,  for  pur- 
poses of  moral  instruction,  into  separate  classes,  ac- 
cording to  their  sectarian  affiliations,  and  are  to  be 
taught  separately  by  their  own  clergymen  or  by  teach- 
ers acting  under  instructions  from  the  latter.  The 
high  authority  of  Germanyjs  invoked  in  support  of 
this  plan.     If  I  am  correctly  informed,  the  president 


8  MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF   CHILDREN. 

of  one  of  our  leading  universities  has  recently  spoken 
in  favor  of  it,  and  it  is  likely  tliat  an  attempt  will 
be  made  to  introduce  it  in  the  United  States.  Al- 
ready in  some  of  our  reformatory  schools  and  other 
public  institutions  separate  religious  services  are  held 
by  the  ministers  of  the  various  sects,  and  we  may 
expect  that  an  analogous  arrangement  will  be  pro- 
posed with  respect  to  moral  teaching  in  the  common 
schools.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  pay  some  at- 
tention to  the  German  system,  and  to  explain  the  rea- 
sons which  have  induced  or  compelled  the  Germans 
to  adopt  the  compromise  just  di^scribed.  The  chief 
points  to  be  noted  are  these :  In  Germanyj^church  and 
state  are  united.  The  King  of  Prussia,  for  instance, 
is  the  head  of  the  Evangelical  Church.  This  con- 
stitutes a  vital  difference  between  America  and  Ger- 
many. Secondly,  in  Germany  the  schools  existed 
before  the  state  took  charge  of  them.  The  school 
system  was  founded  by  the  Clmrch,  and  the  problem 
which  confronted  the  Government  was  how  to  con- 
vert church  schools  into  state  schools.  An  attempt 
w^as  made  to  do  this  by  limiting  the  influence  of  the 
clergy,  w^hich  formerly  had  been  all-powerful  and 
all-pervasive,  to  certain  branches  and  certain  hours 
of  instruction,  thereby  securing  the  supremacy  of 
the  state  in  respect  to  all  other  branches  and  at  all 
other  hours.  In  America,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
state  founded  the  schools  ab  initio.  In  Germany 
the  state  has  actually  encroached  upon  the  Church, 
has  entered  church  schools  and  reconstructed  them 
in  its  own  interest.     To  adopt  the  German  system 


UNSBCTARIAN   MORAL   INSTRUCTION.  9 

in  America  would  be  to  permit  the  Church  to  en- 
croach upon  the  state,  to  enter  state  schools  and 
subordinate  them  to  sectarian  purposes.  The  ex- 
ample of  Germany  can  not,  therefore,  be  quoted  as  a 
precedent  in  point.  The  system  of  compromise  in 
Germany  marks  an  advance  in  the  direction  of  in- 
creasing state  influence.  Its  adoption  in  thi^s  country 
would  mark  a  retrograde  movement  in  the  direction 
of  increasing  church  influence. 

Nor  can  the  system,  when  considered  on  its  own 
merits,  be  called  a  happy  one.  Prof.  Gneist,  in  his 
valuable  treatise,  Die  Konfessionelle  Schule  (which 
may  be  read  by  those  who  desire  to  inform  them- 
selves on  the  historical  evolution  of  the  Prussian  sys- 
tem), maintains  that  scientific "  instruction  must  be 
unsectarian,  while  religious  instruction  must  be  sec- 
tarian. I  agree  to  both  his  propositions.  But  to 
my  mind  it  follows  that,  if  religious  instruction  must 
be  sectarian,  it  ought  not  to  have  a  place  in  state 
schools,  at  least  not  in  a  country  in  which  the  separa- 
tion of  church  and  state  is  complete.  Moreover,  the 
limitation  of  religious  teaching  to  a  few  hours  a 
week  can  never  satisfy  the  earnest  sectarian.  If  he 
w^ants  religion  in  the  schools  at  all,  then  he  will  also 
want  that  specific  kind  of  religious  influence  which 
he  favors  to  permeate  the  whole  school.  He  will 
insist  that  history  shall  be  taught  from  his  point 
of  view,  that  the  readers  shall  breathe  the  spirit  of 
his  faith,  that  the  science  teaching  shall  be  made  to 
harmonize  with  its  doctrines,  etc.  What  a  paltry 
concession,  indeed,  to  open  the  door  to  the  clergy- 


10  MORAL   INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

man  twice  or  three  times  a  week,  and  to  permit 
him  to  teach  the  catechism  to  the  pupils,  while  the 
rest  of  the  teaching  is  withdrawn  from  his  control, 
and  is  perhaps  informed  by  a  spirit  alien  to  his  !  This 
kind  of  compromise  can  never  heartily  be  indorsed  ; 
it  may  be  accepted  under  pressure,  but  submission 
to  it  will  always  be  under  protest.^ 

The  third  arrangement  that  has  been  suggested 
is  that  each  sect  shall  build  its  own  schools,  and  draw 
upon  the  fund  supplied  by  taxation  proportionately 
to  the  mimber  of  children  educated.  But  to  this 
there  are  again  two  great  objections :  First,  it  is 
the  duty  of  the  state  to  see  to  it  that  a  high  edu- 
cational standard  shall  be  maintained  in  the  schools, 
and  that  the  money  spent  on  them  shall  bear  fruit 
in  raising  the  general  intelligence  of  the  community. 
But  the  experience  of  the  past  proves  conclusively 
that  in  sectarian  schools,  especially  where  there  are 
no  rival  unsectarian  institutions  to  force  them  into 
competition,  the  preponderance  of  zeal  and  interest  is 
so  markedly  on  the  side  of  religious  teaching  that  the 
secular  branches  unavoidably  suffer. f     If  it  is  said 

*  Since  the  above  was  written,  the  draft  of  the  VolksscJiul- 
gesetz  submitted  to  the  Prussian  Legislature,  and  the  excited 
debates  to  which  it  gave  rise,  have  supplied  a  striking  confirma- 
tion of  the  views  expressed  in  the  text.  Nothing  could  be  more 
mistaken  than  to  propose  for  imitation  elsewhere  the  German 
"  solution  "  of  the  problem  of  moral  teaching  in  schools,  espe- 
cially at  a  time  when  the  Germans  themselves  are  taking  great 
pains  to  make  it  clear  that  they  are  as  far  as  possible  from  hav- 
ing found  a  solution. 

f  During  the  reactionary  period  which  followed  the  Revolu- 


UNSECTARIAN   MORAL  INSTRUCTION.  H 

that  the  state  may  prescribe  rules  and  set  up  standards 
of  its  own,  to  which  the  sectarian  schools  shall  be 
held  to  conform,  we  ask,  Who  is  to  secure  such  con- 
formance? The  various  sects,  once  having  gained 
possession  of  the  public  funds,  would  resent  the  in- 
terference of  the  State.  The  Inspectors  who  might 
be  appointed  would  never  be  allowed  to/ exercise 
any  real  control,  and  the  rules  which  the  State 
might  prescribe  would  remain  dead  letter. 

In  the  second  place,  under  such  an  arrangement, 
the  highest  purpose  for  which  the  public  schools 
exist  would  be  defeated.  Sectarian  schools  tend  to 
separate  the  members  of  the  various  denominations 
from  one  another,  and  to  hinder  the  growth  of  that 
spirit  of  national  unity  which  it  is,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  prime  duty  of  the  ]3ublic  school  to  create 
and  foster.  The  support  of  a  system  of  public  edu- 
cation out  of  the  proceeds  of  taxation  is  justifiable 
in  the  last  analysis  as  a  measure  dictated  to  the 
State  by  the  law  of  self-preservation.  The  State 
maintains  public  schools  in  order  to  preserve  itself 
— i.  e.,  its  unity.  And  this  is  especially  true  in  a 
republic.  In  a  monarchy  the  strong  arm  of  the 
reigning  dynasty,  supported  by  a  ruling  class,  may 
perhaps  suppress  discord,  and  hold  the  antagonistic 
elements  among  the  people  in  subjection  by  sheer 
force.  In  a  republic  only  the  spirit  of  unity  among 
the   people   themselves   can   keep   them   a  people. 

tion  of  1848,  the  school  regulations  of  Kur-Hessen  provided 
that  twenty  hours  a  week  be  devoted  in  the  Volkschulen  to 
religious  teaching. 


12  MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF   CHILDREN. 

And  this  spirit  is  fostered  in  public  schools,  where 
children  of  all  classes  and  sects  are  brought  into 
daily,  friendly  contact,  and  where  together  they  are 
indoctrinated  into  the  history,  tradition,  and  aspira- 
tions of  the  nation  to  which  they  belong. 

What  then  ?  We  have  seen  that  we  can  not  en- 
courage, that  we  can  not  permit,  the  establishment 
of  sectarian  schools  at  the  public  expense.  We  have 
also  seen  that  we  can  not  teach  religion  in  the  public 
schools.  Must  we,  therefore,  abandon  altogether  the 
hope  of  teaching  the  elements  of  morals  ?  Is  not 
moral  education  conceded  to  be  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant, if  not  the  most  important,  of  all  branches  of 
education  ?  Must  we  forego  the  splendid  opportuni- 
ties afforded  by  the  daily  schools  for  this  purpose  ? 
Is  there  not  a  way  of  imparting  moral  instruction 
without  giving  just  offense  to  any  religious  belief  or 
any  religious  believer,  or  doingj^iolence  to  the  rights 
of  any  sect  or  of  any  party  whatsoever?  The  cor- 
rect answer  to  this  question  would  be  the  solution  of 
the  problem  of  unsectarian  moral  education.  I  can 
merely  state  my  answer  to-day,  in  the  hope  that  the 
entire  course  before  us  may  substantiate  it.  Tlie 
answer,  as  I  conceive  it,  is  this  :  It  is  the  business 
of  the  moral  instructor  in  the  school  to  deliver  to 
his  pupils  the  subject-matter  of  morality,  but  not  to 
deal  with  the  sanctions  of  it ;  to  give  his  pupils  a 
clearer  understanding  of  what  is  right  and  what 
Is  wrong,  but  not  to  enter  into  the  question  why 
the  right  should  be  done  and  the  wrong  avoided. 
For  example,  let  us  suppose  that  the  teacher  is  treat- 


UNSECTARIAN  MORAL   INSTRUCTION.  13 

ing  of  veracity.  He  says  to  the  pupil,  Thou  shalt 
not  lie.  He  takes  it  for  granted  that  the  pupil  feels 
the  force  of  this  commandment,  and  acknowledges 
that  he  ought  to  yield  obedience  to  it.  For  my 
part,  I  should  suspect  of  quibbling  and  dishonest 
intention  any  boy  or  girl  who  would  ask  ipe.  Why 
ought  I  not  to  lie  ?  I  should  hold  up  before  such  a 
child  the  Ought  in  all  its  awful  majesty.  The  right 
to  reason  about  these  matters  can  not  be  conceded 
until  after  the  mind  has  attained  a  certain  maturity. 
And  as  a  matter  of  fact  every  good  child  agrees 
with  the  teacher  unhesitatingly  when  he  says.  It  is 
wrong  to  lie.  Tliere  is  an  answering  echo  in  its 
heart  which  confirms  the  teacher's  words.  But 
what,  then,  is  it  my  business  as  a  moral  teacher  to 
do  ?  In  the  first  place,  to  deepen  the  impression  of 
the  wrongfulness  of  lyiug,  and  the  sacredness  of 
truth,  by  the  spirit  in  wliich  I  approach  the  subject. 
IVly  first  business  is  to  convey  the  spirit  of  moral 
reverence  to  my  pupils.  In  the  next  place,  I  ought 
to  quicken  the  pupil's  perceptions  of  what  is  right 
and  wrong,  in  the  case  supposed,  of  what  is  truth 
and  what  is  falsehood.  Accordingly,  I  should  ana- 
lyze the  difi'erent  species  of  lies,  with  a  view 
of  putting  the  pupils  on  their  guard  against  the 
spirit  of  falsehood,  how^ever  it  may  disguise  it- 
self. I  should  try  to  make  my  pupils  see  that,  when- 
ever they  intentionally  convey  a  false  impression, 
they  are  guilty  of  falsehood.  I  should  try  to  make 
their  minds  intelligent  and  their  consciences  sensi- 
tive in  the  matter  of  truth-telling,  so  that  they  may 


14  MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

avoid  those  numerous  ambiguities  of  which  children 
are  so  fond,  and  which  are  practiced  even  by  adults. 
I  should  endeavor  to  tonic  their  moral  nature  with 
respect  to  truthfulness.  In  the  next  place,  I  should 
point  out  to  them  the  most  frequent  motives  w4iich 
lead  to  lying,  so  that,  by  being  warned  against  the 
causes,  they  may  the  more  readily  escape  the  evil  con- 
sequences. For  example,  cow^ardice  is  one  cause  of 
lying.  By  making  the  pupil  ashamed  of  cow^ardice,  ^ 
we  can  often  cure  him  of  the  tendency  to  falsehood,  j 
A  redundant  imagination  is  another  cause  of  lying, 
envy  is  another  cause,  selfishness  in  all  its  forms  is  a 
principal  cause,  etc.  I  should  say  to  the  moral  teach- 
er :  Direct  the  pupil's  attention  to  the  various  danger- 
ous tendencies  in  his  nature,  which  tempt  him  into 
the  w^ays  of  falsehood.  Furthermore,  explain  to 
your  pupils  the  consequences  of  falsehood  :  the  loss 
of  the  confidence  of  our  fellow-men,  which  is  the 
immediate  and  palpable  result  of  being  detected  in 
a  lie ;  the  injuries  inflicted  on  others ;  the  loosening 
of  the  bonds  of  mutual  trust  in  society  at  large  ;  the 
loss  of  self-respect  on  the  part  of  the  liar ;  the  fatal 
necessity  of  multiplying  lies,  of  inventing  new  false- 
hoods to  make  good  the  first,  etc.  A  vast  amount 
of  good,  I  am  persuaded,  can  be  done  in  this  way 
by  stimulating  the  moral  nature,  by  enabling  the 
scholar  to  detect  the  finer  shades  of  right  and  wrong, 
helping  him  to  trace  temptation  to  its  source,  and 
erecting  in  his  mind  barriers  against  evil-doing, 
founded  on  a  realizing  sense  of  its  consequences. 
In  a  similar  if  not  exactly  the  same  way,  all  the 


UNSECTARIAN  MORAL  INSTRUCTION.  15 

other  principal  topics  of  practical  morality  can 
be  handled.  The  conscience  can  be  enlightened, 
strengthened,  guided,  and  all  this  can  be  done  with- 
out once  raising  the  question  why  it  is  wrong  to  do 
what  is  forbidden.  That  it  is  wrong  should  rather, 
as  I  have  said,  be  assumed.  The  ultimate  grounds  of 
moral  obligation  need  never  be  discussed  in  school. 
It  is  the  business  of  religion  and  philosophy  to  pro- 
pose theories,  or  to  formulate  articles  of  belief  with 
respect  to  the  ultimate  sources  and  sanctions  of 
duty.  Religion  says  we  ought  to  do  right  because 
it  is  the  will  of  God,  or  for  the  love  of  Christ. 
Philosophy  says  we  should  do  right  for  utilitarian 
or  transcendental  reasons,  or  in  obedience  to  the 
law  of  evolution,  etc.  The  moral  teacher,  fortu- 
nately, is  not  called  upon  to  choose  between  these 
various  metaphysical  and  theological  asseverations. 
As  an  individual  he  may  subscribe  to  any  one  of 
them,  but  as  a  teacher  he  is  bound  to  remain  within 
the  safe  limits  of  his  own  province.  He  is  not  to 
explain  why  we  should  do  the  right,  but  to  make  the 
young  people  who  are  intrusted  to  his  charge  see 
more  clearly  what  is  right,  and  to  instill  into  them  his 
own  love  of  and  respect  for  the  right.  There  is  a 
body  of  moral  truth  upon  which  aTl  good  men, 
of  whatever  sect  or  opinion,  are  agreed  :  it  is  the 
husiness  of  the  jpublic  schools  to  deliver  to  their 
pupils  this  GO^nmon  fund  of  moral  ti'iith.  But  I 
must  hasten  to  add,  to  deliver  it  not  in  the  style  of 
the  preacher,  but  according  to  the  methods  of  the 
pedagogue — i.  e.,   in  a   systematic  way,  the  moral 


16  MORAL   INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

lessons  being  graded  to  suit  the  varying  ages  and 
capacities  of  tlie  pupils,  and  the  illustrative  material 
being  sorted  and  arranged  in  like  manner.  Con- 
ceive the  modern  educational  methods  to  have  been 
applied  to  that  stock  of  moral  truths  which  all  good 
men  accept,  and  you  will  have  the  material  for  the 
moral  lessons  which  are  needed  in  a  public  school. 


II. 

THE  EFFICIEN^T   MOTIVES  OF  GOOD 
CONDUCT. 

There  are  persons  in  whom  moral  principle 
seems  to  have  completely  triumphed ;  whose  con- 
duct, so  far  as  one  can  judge,  is  determined  solely 
by  moral  rules ;  but  whom,  nevertheless,  we  do  not 
wholly  admire.  We  feel  instinctively  that  there  is 
in  their  virtue  a  certain  flaw — the  absence  of  a  sav- 
ing grace.  They  are  too  rigorous,  too  much  the 
slaves  of  duty.     They  lack  geniality. 

Like  religion,  morality  has  its  fanatics.  Thus, 
there  is  in  the  temperance  movement  a  class  of 
fanatics  who  look  at  every  public  question  from  the 
point  of  view  of  temperance  reform,  and  from  that 
only.  There  are  also  woman's-rights  fanatics,  social 
purity  fanatics,  etc.  The  moral  fanatic  in  every 
case  is  a  person  whose  attention  is  wholly  engrossed 
by  some  one  moral  interest,  and  who  sees  this  out 
of  its  relation  to  other  moral  interests.  The  end  lie 
has  in  view  may  be  in  itself  highly  laudable,  but  the 
exaggerated  emphasis  put  upon  it,  the  one-sided  pur- 
suit of  it,  is  a  mischievous  error. 

Observe,  further,  that  there  are  degrees  of  moral 
fanaticism.  The  fanatic  of  the  first  degree,  to 
whom  Emerson  addresses  the  words^  "  What  right 
2 


18  MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

have  you,  sir,  to  your  one  virtue  ? "  lias  just  been 
described.  He  is  a  person  who  exalts  some  one 
moral  rule  at  the  expense  of  the  others.  A  fanatic 
of  a  higher  order  is  he  who  exalts  the  whole 
body  of  moral  rules  at  the  expense  of  human  in- 
stincts and  desires.  He  is  a  person  who  always 
acts  according  to  rule ;  who  introduces  moral  con- 
siderations into  every  detail  of  life ;  who  rides  the 
moral  liob])y ;  in  whose  eyes  the  infinite  complex- 
ity of  human  affairs  has  only  one  aspect,  namely, 
the  moral ;  who  is  never  satisfied  unless  at  every  step 
he  feels  the  strain  of  the  bridle  of  conscience  ;  who 
is  incapable  of  spontaneous  action  and  of  naive  enjoy- 
ment. It  is  believed  that  there  are  not  a  few  persons 
of  this  description  in  the  United  States,  and  especially 
in  the  l^ew  England  States — fanatics  on  the  moral 
side,  examples  of  a  one-sided  development  in  the 
direction  of  moral  formalism.  We  must  be  very 
careful,  when  insisting  on  the  authority  of  moral 
ideas,  lest  we  encourage  in  the  young  a  tendency  of 
this  sort.  The  hearts  of  children  are  very  pliable ; 
it  is  easily  possible  to  produce  on  them  too  deep 
an  impression :  to  give  them  at  the  outset  a  fatal 
twist,  all  the  more  since  at  a  certain  age  many 
young  people  are  prone  to  exaggerated  introspection 
and  self -questioning.  But  it  may  be  asked :  Are  not 
moral  principles  really  clothed  with  supreme  .author- 
ity ?  Ought  we  not,  indeed,  to  keep  the  standard  of 
righteousness  constantly  before  our  eyes  ;  in  brief,  is 
it  possible  to  be  too  moral  ?  Evidently  we  have  reached 
a  point  where  a  distinction  requires  to  be  drawn. 


THE  EFFICIENT  MOTIVES  OF  GOOD  CONDUCT.    19 

Ethics  is  a  science  of  relations.  The  things  re- 
lated are  human  interests,  human  ends.  The  ideal 
which  ethics  proposes  to  itself  is  the  unity  of  ends, 
just  as  the  ideal  of  science  is  the  unity  of  causes. 
The  ends  of  the  natural  man  are  the  subject-matter 
with  which  ethics  deals.  The  ends  of  the  natural 
man  are  not  to  be  crushed  or  wiped  out,  but  to  be 
brought  into  right  relations  with  one  another.  The 
ends  of  the  natural  man  are  to  be  respected  from 
an  ethical  point  of  view,  so  long  as  they  remain 
within  their  proper  limits.  The  moral  laws  are 
formulas  expressing  relations  of  equality  or  sub- 
ordination, or  superordi  nation.  The  moral  virtue 
of  our  acts  consists  in  the  respect  which  we  pay  to 
the  system  of  relationships  thus  prescribed,  in  the 
willingness  with  which  we  co-ordinate  our  interests 
with  those  of  others,  or  subordinate  them  to  those 
of  others,  as  the  exigencies  of  the  moral  situation 
may  require. 

But  the  point  on  which  it  is  now  necessary  to 
fix  our  attention  is  that  when  morality  has  once  sanc- 
tioned any  of  the  ends  of  life,  the  natural  man  may 
be  left  to  pursue  them  without  interference  on  the 
part  of  the  moralist.  When  morality  has  marked  out 
the  boundaries  within  which  the  given  end  shall  be 
pursued,  its  work  so  far  is  done ;  except,  indeed,  that 
we  are  always  to  keep  an  eye  upon  those  boundaries, 
and  that  the  sense  of  their  existence  should  pervade  the 
whole  atmosphere  of  our  lives.  "^     A  few  illustrations 

*It  must  be  remembered  also  that  our  knowledge  of  the 


20         MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OP   CHILDREN. 

will  make  my  meaning  clear.  There  is  a  moral  rule 
which  says  that  we  should  eat  to  live ;  not,  conversely, 
live  to  eat.  This  means  that  we  should  regulate  our 
food  in  such  a  way  that  the  body  may  become  a  fit 
instrument  for  the  higher  purposes  of  existence,  and 
that  the  time  and  attention  bestowed  upon  the  matter 
of  eating  shall  not  be  so  great  as  to  divert  us  from 
other  and  more  necessary  objects.  But,  these  limits 
being  established,  it  does  not  follow  that  it  is  wrong 
or  unspiritual  to  enjoy  a  meal.  ^  The  senses,  even 
the  lowest  of  them,  are  permitted  to  have  free  play 
within  the  bounds  prescribed.  Nor,  again,  should  we 
try  rigidly  to  determine  the  choice  of  food  according 
to  moral  considerations.  It  would  be  ridiculous  to 
attempt  to  do  so.  The  choice  of  food  within  a  wide 
range  depends  entirely  on  taste,  and  has  nothing  to 
do  with  moral  considerations  (whether,  for  instance, 
we  should  have  squash  or  beans  for  dinner).  Those 
who  are  deeply  impressed  Avith  the  importance  of 
moral  rules  are  often  betrayed  into  applying  them 
to  the  veriest  minutiae  of  conduct.  Did  they  re- 
member that  ethics  is  a  science  of  relations,  or,  what 
amounts  to  the  same  thing,  a  science  of  limits,  they 
would  be  saved  such  pedantry.  Undoubtedly  there 
are  moral  adiaphora.  The  fact  that  such  exist  has 
been  a  stumbling-block  in  the  way  of  those  who  be- 
lieve that  morality  ought  to  cover  the  whole  of  con- 
right  ethical  relations  is  still  extremely  imperfect,  and  that  the 
duty  of  extending  the  knowledge  and  promoting  the  recognition 
of  them  is  perhaps  the  highest  of  all — to  which,  on  occasion,  every 
lesser  end  must  be  sacrificed. 


THE  EFFICIENT  MOTIVES  OF  GOOD  CONDUCT.    21 

duct.  The  definition  of  etliics  as  a  science  of  rela- 
tions or  limits  removes  tliis  stumbling-block.  Ethics 
stands  at  the  frontier.  With  what  goes  on  in  the 
interior  it  does  not  interfere,  except  in  so  far  as  the 
limitations  it  prescribes  are  an  interference.  Take 
another  illustration.  Ethics  condemns  vanity  and 
whatever  ministers  to  vanity — as,  e.  g.,  undue  at- 
tention to  dress  and  adornment  of  the  person — on  the 
ground  that  this  implies  an  immoral  subordination 
of  the  inner  to  the  outer,  of  the  higher  to  the  lesser 
ends.  But,  to  lay  down  a  cast-iron  rule  as  to  how 
much  one  has  a  right  to  expend  on  dress,  can  not  be 
the  ofiice  of  ethics,  on  account  of  the  infinite  variety 
of  conditions  and  occupations  which  subsists  among 
men.  And  the  attempt  to  prescribe  a  single  fashion 
of  dress,  by  sumptuary  laws  or  otherwise,  would  im- 
pair that  freedom  of  taste  which  it  is  the  business  of 
the  moralist  to  respect.  Again,  every  one  knows 
with  what  bitterness  the  moral  rigorists  of  all  ages 
have  condemned  the  impulse  which  attracts  the  sexes 
toward  one  another,  and  how  often  they  have  tried, 
though  vainly,  to  crush  it.  But  here,  again,  the  true 
attitude  is  indicated  by  the  definition  of  ethics  as  a 
science  of  limits.  The  moral  law  prescribes  bounds 
within  which  this  emotional  force  shall  be  free  to 
operate,  and  claims  for  it  the  holy  name  of  love,  so 
long  as  it  remains  within  the  bounds  prescribed,  and, 
being  within,  remains  conscious  of  them.  That  is 
what  is  meant  when  w^e  speak  of  spiritualizing 
the  feelings.  The  feelings  are  spiritualized  when 
they  move  within  certain  limits,  and  when  the  sense 


22  MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

of  the  existence  of  these  limits  penetrates  them,  and 
thereby  imparts  to  them  a  new  and  nobler  quality. 
And,  because  such  limitation  is  felt  to  be  satisfying 
and  elevating,  the  system  of  correlations  which  we 
call  ethical,  and  which,  abstractly  stated,  would  fail  to 
interest,  does  by  this  means  find  an  entrance  into  the 
human  heart,  and  awakens  in  it  the  sense  of  the  sub- 
limity and  the  blessedness  of  the  moral  commands. 

There  are  two  defects  of  the  moral  fanatic  which 
can  now  be  signalized :  First,  he  wrongly  believes 
that  whatever  is  not  of  morahty  is  against  it.  He 
therefore  is  tempted  to  frown  upon  the  natural  pleas- 
ures ;  to  banish  them  if  he  can,  and,  if  not,  to  admit 
them  only  within  the  narrowest  possible  limits  as  a 
reluctant  concession  to  the  weakness  of  human  na- 
ture. In  consequence,  the  moral  fanatic  commits 
the  enormity  of  introducing  the  taint  of  the  sense 
of  sin  into  the  most  innocent  enjoyments,  and  thus 
perverts  and  distorts  the  conscience.  Secondly,  he 
is  always  inclined  to  seek  a  moral  reason  for  that 
which  has  only  a  natural  one  ;  to  forget  that,  like  the 
great  conquerors  of  antiquity.  Morality  respects  the 
laws  of  the  several  realms  which  it  unites  into  a 
single  empire,  and  guarantees  to  each  the  unimpaired 
maintenance  of  its  local  customs.  These  remarks 
are  intended  to  serve  as  a  general  caution.  I  find 
that  young  people,  when  they  have  become  awakened 
on  ethical  subjects,  often  betray  a  tendency  toward 
moral  asceticism.  I  find  that  teachers,  in  the  earnest 
desire  to  impress  the  laws  of  the  moral  empire,  are 
sometimes  betrayed  into  disregarding  the  provincial 


THE  EFFICIENT  MOTIVES  OF  GOOD  CONDUCT.    23 

laws  of  the  senses,  the  intellect,  and  the  feelings  ;  are 
apt  to  go  too  far  in  applying  moral  prescriptions  to 
the  minutise  of  conduct ;  are  apt  to  leave  the  impres- 
sion that  pleasant  things,  just  because  they  are  pleas- 
ant, are  therefore  sinful. 

But  we  have  novr  to  take  a  further  step,  which 
will  bring  us  close  to  our  special  subject  for  to-day, 
viz.,  the  efficient  motives  of  good  conduct.  The 
non-moral  faculties  are  not  only  not  anti-moral,  as  has 
been  shown,  but,  when  appealed  to  in  the  right  way, 
they  lend  to  Morality  a  friendly,  an  almost  indis- 
pensable support.  The  aesthetic,  the  intellectual,  and 
the  emotional  faculty  have  not  in  themselves  a  moral 
quality,  but  when  used  as  auxiliaries  they  pave  the 
way  for  moral  considerations  pure  and  simple,  and 
have  in  this  sense  an  immense  propaedeutic  value. 
Without  entering  in  this  place  into  the  philosophy 
of  sesthetics,  it  is  enough  to  say  that  the  beautiful, 
like  the  good,  results  from  and  depends  on  the  ob- 
servance of  certain  limits  and  certain  relations.  And 
it  will  not  seem  far-fetched  to  suggest  that  pupils 
who  have  been  trained  to  appreciate  moderation,  re- 
straint and  harmony  of  relations  in  external  objects, 
will  be  predisposed  to  apply  analogous  measures  to 
matters  of  conduct,  and  that  a  standard  of  valuation 
will  thus  be  created  in  their  minds  which  must  prove 
favorable  to  right  action.  Esthetics  may  become  a 
pedagogue  unto  ethics.  The  same  pedagogical  func- 
tion may  be  claimed  for  the  intellect.  The  intellect 
traces  the  connection  between  causes  and  effects.  Ap- 
plied to  conduct,  it  shows  the  connection  between  acts 


24  MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF   CHILDREN. 

and  their  consequences.  It  is  the  faculty  whicli  coun- 
sels prudence.  One  does  not  need  to  accept  the  ego- 
istic theory  of  morals  to  concede  tliat  self-interest  is 
an  ally  of  morality,  that  Prudence  and  Virtue  travel 
hand  in  hand  a  certain  distance  on  the  same  road .  Not, 
indeed,  until  the  ideal  state  shall  have  been  reached 
will  the  dictates  of  the  two  ever  coincide  entirely; 
but  to  a  certain  extent  the  coincidence  already  exists, 
and  the  moral  teacher  is  justified  in  availing  himself 
of  it  as  far  as  it  goes. 

To  take  a  very  simple  case — a  child  handles  a 
knife  which  it  has  been  told  not  to  touch,  and 
cuts  his  fingers.  Morally  speaking,  his  fault  is  dis- 
obedience. He  w^ould  have  been  equally  guilty  if 
he  had  escaped  injury.  But  he  would  hardly  be  so 
ready  to  obey  another  time,  if  he  had  been  less 
sharply  reminded  of  the  usefulness  of  obedience.  It 
is  wrong  to  lie — wrong  on  purely  moral  grounds, 
with  which  self-interest  has  nothing  to  do.  But  for 
all  that  we  can  not  dispense  with  the  lesson  contained 
in  the  well-known  fable  of  the  boy  who  cried,  "  Wolf ! " 
It  is  wrong  to  steal  on  purely  moral  grounds.  But 
even  a  child  can  be  made  to  understand  that  the 
thief,  as  Emerson  puts  it,  "  steals  from  himself," 
and  that,  besides  being  a  rogue,  he  is  deficient  in  en- 
lightened self-interest.  The  maxim  that  honesty  is 
the  best  policy  is  true  enough  so  far  as  the  facts  are 
concerned,  which  come  under  the  observation  of 
children,  though  one  may  question  whether  it  be  true 
absolutely. 

Lastly,  when  we  come  to  consider  the  emotional 


THE  EFFICIENT  MOTIVES  OF  GOOD  CONDUCT.    25 

faculty,  we  find  that  the  intimate  connection  between 
it  and  the  moral  is  so  generally  conceded  as  to  make 
it  quite  superfluous  to  expatiate  on  it.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  seems  necessary  to  expostulate  with  those 
who  claim  too  much  credit  for  the  feelings,  who  as- 
cribe to  them  a  moral  value  which  they  by  no  means 
possess.  Thus,  gentleness  is  not  necessarily  a  virtue  ; 
it  may  be  a  mere  matter  of  temperament.  Sympa- 
thetic impulses,  jper  se,  are  not  praiseworthy.  Sym— ■ 
pathy  quite  as  often  leads  us  astray  as  aright ;  sym- 
pathy, indeed,  unless  tutored  and  regulated  hj  moral 
principles,  is  a  danger  against  which  we  ought  to  be 
on  our  guard  almost  as  much  as  against  seliishness. 
Yet,  no  one  will  deny  that  the  feelings,  when  rightly 
trained,  are  of  inestimable  service  as  auxiliaries  in 
the  task  of  moral  education. 

To  sum  up,  let  me  say  that  the  wise  teacher  will 
appeal  to  the  taste,  the  intelligence,  and  the  feelings" 
of  his  piipils ;  that  he  will  touch  these  various  springs 
of  conduct  all  the  time,  and  get  from  them  all  the 
help  he  can.  Thus,  when  speaking  of  cleanliness, 
he  will  appeal  to  the  sesthetic  instinct  of  the  children, 
awakening  in  them  a  feeling  of  disgust  at  untidiness. 
He  will  appeal  to  the  prudential  motive,  by  showing 
that  want  of  cleanliness  breeds  disease.  "  You  do  not 
wish  to  be  sick  ?  You  do  not  wish  to  suffer  ?  There- 
fore, it  is  to  your  interest  to  be  clean."  But,  finally, 
he  will  touch  a  higher  motive  than  any  of  these.  "  If 
you  are  unclean,  you  cease  to  respect  yourself."  And 
the  term  self-respect  expresses  in  a  condensed  form 
the  moral  motive^ proper.     It  implies  the  idea  of 


26  MORAL   INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

moral  personality,  which  it  is  not  necessary,  nor  pos- 
sible, at  this  stage  to  analyze,  but  which  the  pupil  will 
somehow  understand,  for  his  conscience  will  respond. 
In  many  cases  the  appeal  will  be  made  chiefly  to  the 
sympathetic  feelings ;  for  through  these  feelings 
we  become  aware  of  the  pains  and  joys  of  others, 
and  thus  of  the  consequences  of  the  benefits  we  con- 
fer or  the  evil  we  inflict.  The  sympathetic  feelings 
supply  the  information  upon  which  the  will  can  act. 
They  tell  us  that  others  suffer  or  are  glad.  And  yet 
the  strength  to  labor  persistently  for  the  relief  of 
others'  sufliering  and  the  enhancement  of  others'  joy 
— that  we  can  derive  from  the  moral  impulse  alone. 
The  moral  motive  is  the  highest,  it  is  really  the 
only  sufficient  motive.  Pray,  understand  me  well  at 
this  point.  I  should  say  to  the  child  :  It  is  wrong 
to  lie.  That  is  suflicient.  It  is  wrong,  it  is  for- 
bidden ;  you  must  yourself  acknowledge  the  truth  of 
my  words,  because  you  despise  yourself  when  you 
have  told  a  lie.  But,  in  order  to  strengthen  your 
weak  resolution,  to  confirm  you  in  well-doing,  let 
me  show  you  that  it  is  also  contrary  to  self-interest 
to  lie,  and  likewise  that  it  is  disgusting  to  be  unclean, 
and  that  a  wrong  done  to  another  causes  pain.  Thus 
the  aesthetic,  intellectual,  and  emotional  faculties  are 
called  in  as  witnesses  to  bear  testimony  to  the  moral 
truths ;  they  are  invited  to  stand  up  in  chorus  and 
say  Amen  !  to  the  moral  commands. 


III. 

OPPOKTUNITIES  FOR  MORAL  TRAmiXG 
m  THE   DAILY   SCHOOL. 

The  school  should  be  to  the  pupil  not  an  intel- 
lectual drill-ground,  but  a  second  home ;  a  place  dear 
at  the  time,  and  to  be  gratefully  remembered  ever 
after  ;  a  place  in  which  his  whole  nature,  and  espe- 
cially what  is  best  in  him,  may  expand  and  grow. 
The  educational  aim  should  be,  not  merely  to  pave 
the  pupil's  way  to  future  success,  not  merely  to 
make  of  his  mind  a  perfect  instrument  of  thought, 
a  kind  of  intellectual  loom,  capable  of  turning  out 
the  most  complicated  intellectual  patterns.  The  aim 
should  be,  above  all ;  to  build  up  manhood,  to  develop 
character.  There  is  no  school  in  which  moral  influ- 
ence is  wanting.  The  pity  is,  that  in  many  schools 
it  is  incidental,  not  purposed.  And  yet  there  are 
manifold  opportunities  in  every  school  for  influenc- 
ing the  moral  life.     Let  us  consider  a  few  of  these. 

1.  The  teaching  of  science  lends  itself  to  the  cul- 
tivation of  truthfulness.  Truthfulness  may  be  de- 
fined as  the  correspondence  between  thought  and 
word  and  fact.  When  the  thought  in  the  mind  fits 
the  fact,  and  the  word  on  the  tongue  fits  the  thought, 
then  the  circuit  of  truth  is  complete.  Now,  with 
respect  to  the  inculcating  of  truthfulness,  science 


28  MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

teaching  has  this  advantage  above  other  branches, 
that  the  palpable  nature  of  the  facts  dealt  with  makes 
it  possible  to  note  and  check  the  least  deviation 
from  the  truth.  The  fact  is  present,  right  before  the 
pupil,  to  rebuke  him  if  he  strays  from  it  in  thought 
or  speech.  And  this  circumstance  may  be  utilized 
even  in  the  humble  beginnings  of  science  teaching, 
in  the  so-called  object-lessons.  For  instance,  a  bird, 
or  the  picture  of  one,  is  placed  before  the  child.  The 
teacher  says,  "  Observe  closely  and  tell  me  exactly 
what  you  see — tlie  length  of  the  neck,  the  curve  of 
the  beak,  the  colors  of  the  plumage,"  etc.  The  pupil 
replies.  The  teacher  objects:  "You  have  not  ob- 
served accurately.  The  color  is  not  what  you  de- 
scribe it  to  be.  Look  again.  The  curve  of  the  beak 
does  not  resemble  what  you  have  just  drawn  on  the 
blackboard.  You  must  tell  me  exactly  what  you 
see.  Your  words  must  tally  with  the  facts."  And 
the  same  sort  of  practice  may  be  continued  in  the 
science-lessons  of  the  upper  classes. 

Scientists  are  distinguished  from  other  observers 
by  their  greater  accuracy.  Intellectual  honesty  is 
that  moral  quality  which  science  is  best  calculated 
to  foster.  All  the  great  scientists  have  been  haunted 
by  a  high  ideal  of  truth,  and  a  gleam  of  that  ideal, 
however  faint,  may  be  made  to  shed  its  light  even 
into  the  school-room.  It  is  obvious  that  this  realistic 
tutoring  into  veracity  will  be  of  special  use  to  chil- 
dren who  are  led  into  lying  by  a  too  vivid  imagina- 
tion. 

Let  me  add  the  following  remarks  in  regard  to 


MORAL  TRAINING   IN  THE  DAILY   SCHOOL.    29 

indirect  means  of  promoting  truthfulness :  The 
teacher  can  do  a  great  deal  to  cultivate  respect  for 
the  truth  among  his  pupils  by  frankly  admitting 
an  error  whenever  he  has  fallen  into  one.  Some 
teachers  try  to  save  their  dignity  by  glossing  over 
their  mistakes.  But  even  young  children  are  shrewd 
enough  to  estimate  such  trickery  at  its  worth  ;  while 
he  who  manfully  confesses  that  he  has  been  in  the 
wrong,  earns  the  respect  of  his  class,  and  sets  them 
an  invaluable  example. 

It  is  well  also  to  observje  strict  accuracy  even  in 
matters  which  of  themselves  are  of  no  moment.  For 
instance,  in  giving  an  account  of  a  botanizing  ex- 
pedition, you  begin,  perhaps,  by  saying,  "  It  was 
half-past  ten  w^hen  we  arrived  at  our  destination." 
Suddenly  you  stop  and  correct  yourself.  "No,  I 
was  mistaken ;  it  could  not  have  been  later  than  ten 
o'clock."  Does  this  strike  you  as  pedantic  ?  But  if 
you  fix  the  time  at  all,  is  it  not  worth  while  to  fix 
it  with  approximate  exactness  ?  True,  it  makes  no 
difference  in  regard  to  what  you  are  about  to  relate, 
w^hether  you  arrived  at  half -past  ten  or  at  ten. 
But,  precisely  because  it  makes  no  difference,  it 
shows  the  value  which  you  set  on  accuracy  even  in 
trifies.  And  by  such  little  turns  of  phrase,  by  such 
insubstantial  influences,  coming  from  the  teacher, 
the  pupil's  character  is  molded. 

^.  The  study  of  history^  when  properly  conducted 
is  of  high  moral  value.  History  sets  before  the  mind 
examples  of  heroism,  of  self-sacrifice,  of  love  of 
country,  of  devotion  to   principles  at   the  greatest 


30    MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

cost.  How  can  such  examples  fail  to  inspire,  to  en- 
noble, to  awaken  emulation  ?  The  great  and  good 
men  of  the  past,  the  virtuous  and  the  wise,  serve  as 
models  to  the  young,  and  often  arouse  in  them  an 
enthusiastic  admiration,  a  passionate  discipleship. 
In  the  next  place,  the  study  of  history  may  be  used 
to  exercise  the  moral  judgment.  The  characters 
which  history  presents  are  not  all  good ;  the  char- 
acters even  of  the  good  are  by  no  means  faultless. 
It  is  in  the  power  of  the  teacher  to  train  the  moral 
judgment  and  to  increase  the  moral  insight  of  his 
pupils  by  leading  them  to  enter  into  the  motives, 
and  to  weigh  the  right  and  wrong  of  the  actions 
which  history  reports.  He  will  also  find  many  an 
occasion  to  warn  against  being  dazzled  by  brilliant 
success  to  such  a  degree  as  to  condone  the  moral 
turpitude  by  which  it  is  often  bought.  The  study 
of  history  can  thus  be  made  the  means  of  enlighten- 
ing the  conscience  as  well  as  of  awakening  generous 
aspirations— but,  let  me  hasten  to  add,  only  in  the 
hands  of  a  teacher  who  is  himself  morally  mature? 
and  fully  imbued  with  the  responsibilities  of  his  task. 
Lastly,  the  study  of  history  among  advanced  pupils 
may  be  used  to  confirm  the  moral  idea  of  the 
inissiop  of  mankind,  and  to  set  it  in  its  true  light. 
The  human  race,  as,  from  the  moral  point  of 
view,  we  are  bound  to  assume,  exists  on  earth  in 
order  to  attempt  the  solution  of  a  sublime  prob- 
lem— the  problem  of  the  perfect  civilization,  the 
just  society,  the  "  kingdom  of  God."  But  on  every 
page  of  history  there  are  facts  that  warn  us  that 


MORAL   TRAINING   IN  THE   DAILY  SCHOOL.    31 

progress  toward  this  high  ideal  is  of  necessity 
slow.  Whether  we  review  the  evolution  of  relig- 
ion, or  of  political  institutions,  or  of  industrial  so- 
ciety, we  are  still  forced  to  the  same  solemn  con- 
clusion, that  in  view  of  the  ultimate  goal,  "  a  thou- 
sand years  are  as  a  day,"  and  that  while  we  may  not 
relax  our  efforts  to  attain  the  ideal,  we  must  be  well 
content  in  case  we  are  permitted  to  advance  the 
mighty  work  even  a  little.  This  conviction  is  cal- 
culated to  engender  in  us  a  new  spirit  of  piety  and 
self-abnegation,  which  yet  is  consistent  with  perfect 
alacrity  in  discharging  the  duty  of  the  hour. 

There  could  be  no  better  result  from  the  study 
of  history  among  young  men  and  young  women  than 
if  it  should  have  the  effect  of  impressing  on  them 
this  new  piety,  this  genuine  historic  sense,  in  which 
the  average  citizen,  especially  of  democratic  com- 
munities, is  so  conspicuously  deficient.  But  this  is  j 
a  digression  which  I  must  ask  you  to  pardon.  / 

3.  The  moral  value  of  the  study  of  literatW^^ 
as  great  as  it  is  obvious.  Literature  is  the  medium 
-^jhrough  which  all  that  part  of  our  inner  life  finds 
expression  which  defies  scientific  formulation.  In 
the  text-books  of  science  we  possess  the  net  result  of 
the  purely  intellectual  labors  of  the  past ;  in  universal 
literature  we  have  composite  photographs,  as  it  were, 
of  the  typical  hopes,  sentiments,  and  aspirations  of 
the  race.  Literature  gives  a  voice  to  that  within  us 
w^hich  would  otherwise  remain  dumb,  and  fixity  to 
that  which  would  otherwise  be  evanescent.  The 
best  literature,  and  especially  the  best  poetry,  is  a 


32  MORAL   INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

glass  in  which  we  see  our  best  selves  reflected. 
There  is  a  legend  which  tells  of  two  spirits,  the 
one  an  angel,  the  other  a  demon,  that  accompany 
every  human  being  through  life,  and  walk  invisibly 
at  his  side.  The  one  represents  our  bad  self,  the 
other  our  better  self.  The  moral  service  which  the 
best  literature  renders  us  is  to  make  the  invisible 
angel  visible. 

4.  I  can  but  cast  a  cursory  glance  at  some  of  the 
remaining  branches  of  instruction. 

Manual  training  has  a  moral  eifect  upon  the 
pupil,  of  which  I  have  spoken  at  some  length  on  an- 
other occasion.^ 

Music^  apart  from  its  subtler  influences,  which 
can  not  be  considered  here,  has  the  special  function 
of  producing  in  the  pupil  a  feeling  of  oneness  with 
others,  or  of  social  unity.  This  is  best  accomplished 
through  the  instrumentality  of  chorus  singing,  while 
particular  moral  sentiments,  like  charity,  love  of 
home,  etc.,  can  be  inculcated  by  means  of  the  texts. 

Gymnastic  exercises  likewise  have  a  moral  eft'ect 
in  promoting  habits  of  self-control,  prompt  obedi- 
ence at  the  word  of  command,  etc.  Indeed,  it  is  not 
difflcult  to  show  the  moral  bearings  of  the  ordi- 
nary branches  of  instruction.  It  would,  on  the  con- 
trary, be  difficult  to  find  a  single  one,  which,  when 
rightly  viewed,  is  not  surrounded  by  a  moral  photo- 
sphere. 

Science,  history,  literature,  and  the  other  branches 

*  In  the  address  on  the  subject,  reprinted  in  the  Appendix. 


MORAL   TRAINING  IN   TEE  DAILY  SCHOOL.    33 

lend  themselves  in  various  ways  to  the  development 
of  character.  But  there  are  certain  other  opportu- 
nities which  every  school  oflEers,  apart  from  the  teacii- 
ing,  and  these  may  be  utilized  to  the  same  end. 
The  discipline  of  the  school,  above  all,  has  an  im- 
mense effect  on  the  character.  If  it  is  of  the 
right  kind,  a  beneficial  effect ;  if  not,  a  most  per- 
nicious one. 

The  mere  working  of  what  may  be  called  the 
school  machinery  tends  to  inculcate  habits  of  order, 
punctuality,  and  the  like.  The  aggregation  of  a 
large  number  of  scholars  in  the  same  building  and 
their  intercourse  with  one  another  under  the  eye  of 
the  teachers,  afford  frequent  opportunities  for  im- 
pressing lessons  of  kindness,  politeness,  mutual  help- 
fulness, etc. 

The  recitations  of  lessons  give  occasion  not  only 
to  suppress  prompting,  but  to  eradicate  the  motives 
which  lead  to  it,  and  to  impress  deeply  the  duty  of 
honesty. 

The  very  atmosphere  of  the  class-room  should  be 
such  as  to  encourage  moral  refinement ;  it  should 
possess  a  sunny  climate,  so  to  speak,  in  which  mean- 
ness and  vulgarity  can  not  live. 

But  there  is  especially  one  avenue  of  infiuence, 
which  I  have  much  at  heart  to  recommend.  The 
teacher  should  join  in  the  gcmies^oi  his  pupils.  He 
will  thus  at  once  come  to  stand  on  a  friendly  footing 
with  them,  and  win  their  confidence,  without  in  the 
least  derogating  from  his  proper  dignity.  And  thus 
will  be  removed  that  barrier  which  in  many  schools 


34    MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

separates  pupils  and  teachers  to  such  a  degree  that 
there  actually  seem  to  exist  side  by  side  two  worlds — 
the  world  to  which  the  teacher  has  access,  and  the 
world  from  which  he  is  shut  out.  Moreover,  w^iile 
they  are  at  play,  the  true  character  of  the  pupils  re- 
veals itself.  At  such  times  the  sneak,  the  cheat,  the 
bully,  the  liar,  show^s  his  true  colors,  and  the  teacher 
has  the  best  opportunity  of  studying  these  pathologi- 
cal subjects  and  of  curing  their  moral  defects.  For, 
while  playing  with  them,  as  one  concerned  in  the 
game,  he  has  the  right  to  insist  on  fair  dealing,  to 
express  his  disgust  at  cowardice,  to  take  the  part  of 
the  weak  against  the  strong,  and  his  words  spoken 
on  the  playground  will  have  tenfold  the  effect  of 
any  hortatory  address  w^hich  he  might  deliver  from 
the  platform.  The  greatest  and  most  successful  of 
teachers  have  not  disdained  to  use  this  device. 

Finally,  let  me  say  that  the  personality  of  the 
master  or  principal  of  the  school  is  the  chief  factor 
of  moral  influence  in  it.  Put  a  great,  sound,  whole- 
souled  nature  at  the  head  of  a  school,  and  everything 
else  may  almost  be  taken  for  granted.  In  every 
school  there  exists  a  public  opinion  among  the 
scholars,  by  which  they  are  affected  to  a  far  greater 
degree  than  by  the  words  of  their  superiors.  The 
tactful  master  will  direct  his  chief  attention  to  shap- 
ing and  improving  this  public  opinion,  while  at 
the  same  time  interfering  as  little  as  possible  wdth 
the  freedom  of  his  pupils.  He  can  accomplish 
his  purpose  by  drawing  close  to  himself  those  schol- 
ars who  make  the  public  opinion  of  the  school,  and 


MORAL   TRAININQ  IN  THE  DAILY  SCHOOL.     35 

these  ill  turn  he  can  win  to  fine  and  manly  views  only 
by  the  effect  of  his  personality.  The  personality  of 
the  head-master  is  everything.  It  is  the  ultimate 
source  of  power  in  the  school,  the  central  organ 
which  sends  out  its  life-giving  currents  through  the 
whole  organism.  And  let  me  here  add  that,  if  I  am 
in  favor  of  excluding  direct  religious  teaching  from 
our  schools,  I  am  not  in  favor  of  excluding  religious 
influence.  That,  too,  flows  from  the  personality  of 
the  true  master.  For  if  he  be  reverent,  a  truly  pious 
soul,  humble  in  his  estimate  of  self,  not  valuing  his 
petty  schoolmaster's  authority  on  its  own  account, 
but  using  it  lovingly  as  an  instrument  for  higher 
ends,  he  will  be  sure  to  communicate  of  his  spirit 
to  his  pupils,  and  by  that  spirit  will  open  their 
hearts,  better  than  by  any  doctrinal  teaching  he 
could  give,  to  the  reception  of  the  highest  spiritual 
truths. 

'  By  all  these  means — by  the  culture  of  the  intel- 
lect, the  taste,  and  the  feelings,  by  his  daily  dealings 
with  the  young,  in  work  and  play — the  teacher  helps 
to  create  in  them  certain  moral  habits.  Why,  then, 
should  not  these  habits  suffice  ?  What  need  is  there 
of  specific  moral  instruction  ?  And  what  is  the  re- 
lation of  moral  instruction  to  the  habits  thus  engen- 
dered ? 

The  function  of  moral  instruction  is  to  clinch  the 
habits.  The  function  of  moral  instruction  is  to  ex- 
plicate in  clear  statements,  fit  to  be  grasped  by  the 
intellect,  the  laws  of  duty  which  underlie  the  habits. 
The  value  of  such  intellectual  statements  is  that  they 


36         MORAL   INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

give  a  rational  underpinning  to  moral  practice,  and, 
furthermore,  that  they  permit  the  moral  rules  to  be 
applied  to  new  cases  not  heretofore  brought  within 
the  scope  of  habit.  This  thought  will  be  more  fully 
developed  and  explained  as  we  proceed. 


IV. 
CLASSIFICATIOlSr  OF  DUTIES. 

The  topics  of  which  moral  instruction  treats  are 
the  duties  of  life.  To  teach  the  duties,  however,  we 
must  adopt  some  system  of  classification.  To  which 
system  shall  we  give  the  preference  ?  The  diflSculty 
which  we  encountered  at  the  outset  seems  to  meet  us 
here  in  a  new  guise. 

For  most  if  not  all  of  the  systems  of  classification 
commonly  proposed  are  based  upon  some  metaphysical 
theory  or  some  theological  doctrine.  To  adopt  any 
one  of  these  would  be  tantamount  to  adopting  the 
theory  or  theology  on  which  it  is- founded;  would  be 
equivalent  to  introducing  surreptitiously  a  particular 
philosophy  or  creed  into  the  minds  of  the  pupils; 
and  this  would  be  a  plain  departure  from  the  unsec- 
tarian  principle  to  which  we  are  pledged.  Thus, 
Plato's  fourfold  division  of  the  virtues  into  the  so- 
called  cardinal  virtues  of  temperance,  courage,  justice, 
wisdom,  is  based  on  his  psychology.  Aristotle's 
division  of  the  virtues  into  dianoetic  and  what  he 
calls  ethical  virtues  is  clearly  dependent  on  what 
may  be  termed  Aristotle's  intellectualism — i.  e.,  the 
supreme  importance  which  he  assigns  to  the  func- 
tions of  the  intellect,  or  vov<;,  in  the  attainment  of 
the  perfect  life. 


38  MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

Kant's  division  of  duties  into  complete  and  in- 
complete is  an  outgrowth  of  the  ideas  developed  in 
his  Critique  of  Pure  Reason ;  the  philosopher  Her- 
bart's  fivefold  classification  reflects  his  metaphysical 
theory  of  reality ;  while  the  systems  of  ethical 
classification  which  are  to  be  found  in  theological 
handbooks  betray  still  more  clearly  the  bias  of  their 
authors. 

We  can,  I  think,  find  a  simple  way  out  of  this 
difficulty  by  proceeding  in  the  following  manner: 
Let  us  take  for  our  guidance  the  objects  to  which 
duty  relates,  and  disregard  the  sources  from  which 
it  flows.  It  is  conceded  on  all  hands  that  every  one 
is  to  himself  an  object  of  duty,  that  he  has  certain 
duties  to  perform  with  respect  to  himself,  as,  for 
instance,  the  duty  of  intellectual  development ;  fur- 
thermore, that  every  person  owes  certain  duties  to 
his  fellow-men  generally,  in  virtue  of  the  fact  that 
they  are  human  beings;  again,  that  there  are  spe- 
cial duties  which  we  owe  to  particular  persons, 
such  as  parents,  brothers,  and  sisters ;  finally,  that 
there  are  certain  duties,  into  which,  so  to  speak, 
we  are  born,  like  the  ones  last  mentioned,  and 
others  which  we  can  freely  assume  or  not,  like 
the  conjugal  duties,  but  which,  once  assumed,  be- 
come as  binding  as  the  former.  Thus  the  very  struct- 
ure of  human  society  suggests  a  scheme  of  classifi- 
cation. And  this  scheme  has  the  advantage  of 
being  a  purely  objective  one.  It  keeps  close  to 
the  facts,  it  is  in  harmony  with  the  unsectarian 
principle,   and   it  is  perfectly  fair.     It  leaves  the 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  DUTIES.  39 

problem  of  first  principles  entirely  untouched.  That 
we  have  such  duties  to  perform  with  respect  to 
self  and  others,  no  one  questions.  Let  philosopjiers 
differ  as  to  the  ultimate  motives  of  duty.  Let 
them  reduce  the  facts  of  conscience  to  any  set  of 
first  principles  which  may  suit  them.  It  is  our  part 
as  instructors  to  interpret  the  facts  of  conscience, 
not  to  seek  for  them  an  ultimate  explanation. 

Let  me  briefly  indicate  how  the  different  du- 
ties may  be  made  to  fall  into  line  according  to 
the  plan  of  classification  which  has  just  been  sug- 
gested. The  whole  field  of  duty  may  be  divided 
into  three  main  jDrOyincesj  ^  those  duties  which  re- 
late to  ourselves,  tliose  which  we  owe  to  all  men,  and 
those  which  arise  in  the  special  relations  of  the  fam- 
ily, the  state,  etc. : 

I.  The  Self -regarding  Duties. 

These  may  again  be  subdivided  into  duties  re- 
lating to  our  physical  nature,  to  the  intellect,  and  to 
the  feelings. 

Under  the  head  of  physical  duties  belong  the 
prohibition  of  suicide,  and  the  duties  of  physical  cult- 
ure, temperance,  and  chastity. 

Intellectual  Duties. — Under  this  head  may  be 
ranged  the  duty  of  acquiriugjiuowledge  and  the 

*  It  may  be  urged  by  some  that  duties  toward  God  ought  to 
be  included  in  such  a  scheme  of  moral  lessons  as  we  are  propos- 
ing. I  should  say,  however,  that  the  discussion  of  these  duties 
belongs  to  the  Sunday-schools,  the  existence  of  which  alongside 
the  daily  schools  is  presupposed  throughout  the  preserit  course  of 
lectures. 


40         MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

subsidiary  duties  of  order,  diligence,  perseverance 
in  study;  while,  for  those  who  are  beyond  the 
school  age,  special  stress  should  be  laid  on  the  duty 
of  mental  genuineness.  This  may  be  expressed 
in  the  words :  To  thine  own  mental  self  be  true. 
Study  thine  own  mental  bent.  Try  to  discover  in 
what  direction  thy  proper  talent  lies,  and  make  the 
most  of  it.  Work  thine  own  mine:  if  it  be  a 
gold-mine,  bring  forth  gold;  if  it  be  a  silver-mine, 
bring  forth  silver;  if  it  be  an  iron-mine,  bring 
forth  iron.  Endeavor  to  master  some  one  branch 
of  knowledge  thoroughly  well.  It  is  for  thee  the 
key  which  opens  the  gates  of  all  knowledge.  The 
need  of  general  culture  is  felt  by  all,  but  the  con- 
centration of  intellectual  efforts  on  special  studies  is 
not  inconsistent  with  it.  On  the  contrary,  special 
studies  alone  enable  us  to  gain  a  foothold  in  the 
realm  of  knowledge.  A  branch  of  knowledge  which 
we  have  mastered,  however  small,  may  be  com- 
pared to  a  strong  fortress  in  an  enemy's  country, 
from  which  we  can  sally  forth  at  will  to  conquer  the 
surrounding  territory.  Knowledge  may  also  be  lik- 
ened to  a  sphere.  From  every  point  of  the  circum- 
ference we  can,  by  persistent  labor,  dig  down  to  the 
center.  He  who  has  reached  the  center  commands 
the  sphere. 

Duties  which  relate  to  the  Feelings. — The  prin- 
cipal duty  under  this  head  may  be  expressed  in  the 
twofold  command — control  and  purify  thy  feelings ! 
The  feelings  which  need  to  be  repressed  are  anger, 
fear,  self-complacency.     Let  the  teacher,  when  he 


CLASSIFICATION   OP   DUTIES.  41 

reaches  this  point,  dwell  upon  the  causes  and  the 
consequences  of  anger.  Let  him  speak  of  certain 
helps  which  have  been  found  useful  for  the  sup- 
pression of  angry  passion.  Let  him  distinguish 
anger  from  moral  indignation. 

In  dealing  with  fear  let  him  pursue  the  same 
method.  Let  him  distinguish  physical  from  moral 
cowardice,  brute  courage  from  moral  courage,  cour- 
age from  fortitude. 

In  dealing  with  self-complacency  let  him  discrimi- 
nate between  vanity  and  pride,  between  pride  and 
dignity.  Let  him  show  that  humility  and  dignity 
are  consistent  with  one  another,  yes,  that  they  are 
complementary  aspects  of  one  and  the  same  moral 
quality.  Not  the  least  advantage  to  be  reaped  from 
lessons  on  duty  is  the  fixing  in  the  pupil's  mind  of 
the  moral  vocabulary.  The  moral  terms  as  a  rule 
are  loosely  used,  and  this  can  not  but  lead  to  con- 
fusion in  their  application.  Precise  definitions, 
based  on  thorough  discussion,  are  an  excellent  means 
of  moral  training.*^ 

11.  The  duties  which  we  owe  to  all  men  are  Jus- 
tice and  Charity  : 

Be  just  is  equivalent  to — Do  not  hinder  the  de- 
velopment of  any  of  thy  fellow-men.  Be  charitable 
is  equivalent  to — Assist  the  development  of  thy  fel- 
low-men.    Under  the  head  of  charity  the  teacher 

*  The  duties  which  relate  to  the  moral  nature,  as  a  whole, 
such  for  instance  as  the  duty  of  self-scrutiny,  may  be  considered 
either  at  the  end  of  the  chapter  on  self-regarding  duties,  or  at 
the  close  of  the  whole  course. 


42  MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

will  have  occasion  to  speak  not  only  of  almsgiving, 
the  visitation  of  the  sick,  and  the  like,  but  of  the  thou- 
sand charities  of  the  fireside,  of  the  charity  of  bright 
looks,  of  what  may  be  called  intellectual  charity, 
which  consists  in  opening  the  eyes  of  the  mentally 
blind,  and  of  the  noblest  charity  of  all,  which  consists 
in  coming  to  the  aid  of  those  who  are  deep  in  the 
slough  of  moral  despond,  in  raising  the  sinful  and 
fallen. 

III.  Special  social  duties  : 

Under  this  head  belong  the  duties  which  arise  in 
the  family  :  the  conjugal,  the  parental,  the  filial,  the 
fraternal  duties. 

Under  the  head  of  duties  peculiar  to  the  various 
avocations  should  be  discussed  the  ethics  of  the  pro- 
fessions, the  ethics  of  the  relations  between  employers 
and  laborers,  etc. 

The  consideration  of  the  duties  of  the  citizen 
opens  up  the  whole  territory  of  political  ethics. 

Lastly,  the  purely  elective  relationships  of  friend- 
ship and  religious  fellowship  give  rise  to  certain  fine 
and  lofty  ethical  conceptions,  the  discussion  of  which 
may  fitly  crown  the  whole  course. 

I  have  thus  mentioned  some  of  the  main  topics 
of  practical  ethics,  from  which  we  are  to  make  our 
selection  for  the  moral  lessons. 

But  a  selective  principle  is  needed.  The  field  be- 
ing spread  out  before  us,  the  question  arises.  At  what 
point  shall  we  enter  it  ?  What  topics  shall  we  single 
out  ?  It  would  be  manifestly  absurd,  for  instance, 
to  treat  of  international  ethics,  or  of  conjugal  eth- 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  DUTIES.  43 

ics,  in  a  course  intended  for  children.  But  especial- 
ly the  order  in  which  the  different  topics  are  to"  fol- 
low each  other  needs  to  be  determined.  The  order 
followed  in  the  above  sketch  is  a  purely  logical  one, 
and  the  logical  arrangement  of  a  subject,  as  every 
educator  knows,  is  not  usually  the  one  most  suitable 
for  bringing  it  within  reach  of  the  understanding  of 
children.  It  would  not  be  in  the  present  instance. 
Clearly  a  selective  principle  is  wanted. 

Let  me  here  interrupt  myself  for  a  moment  to 
say  that  the  problem  which  we  are  attacking,  so  far 
from  being  solved,  has  heretofore  hardly  even  been 
stated.  And  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  moral  in- 
struction has  been  thus  far  almost  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  persons  whose  chief  interest  was  religious, 
and  who,  whatever  their  good  intentions  might  be, 
were  hardly  qualified  to  look  at  the  subject  from  the 
educator's  point  of  view.  The  work  of  breaking 
ground  in  the  matter  of  moral  instruction  has  still 
to  be  done.  As  to  the  selective  principle  which  I 
have  in  view  I  feel  a  certain  confidence  in  its  cor- 
rectness ;  but  I  am  aware  that  the  applications  of  it 
will  doubtless  require  manifold  amendment  and  cor- 
rection, for  which  purpose  I  invoke  the  experience 
and  honest  criticism  of  my  fellow-teachers.  This 
being  understood,  I  venture  to  ask  your  attention  to 
the  following  considerations : 

The  life  of  every  human  being  naturally  divides  it- 
self into  distinct  periods — infancy,  childhood,  youth, 
etc.  Each  period  has  a  set  of  interests  and  of  corre- 
sponding duties  pecuhar  to  itself.   The  moral  teaching 


44:  MOHAL   INSTRUCTION  OF   CHILDREN. 

should  be  graded  according  to  periods.  The  teach- 
ing appropriate  to  any  period  is  that  which  bears 
upon  the  special  duties  of  that  period.  To  illustrate, 
the  ethics  of  childhood  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 
The  personal  duties  of  a  child  are  chiefly  the  observ- 
ance of  a  few  simple  rules  of  health  and  the  curbing  of 
its  temper.  It  owes  social  duties  to  parents,  brothers 
and  sisters,  and  kinsfolk,  to  its  playmates,  and  to  ser- 
vants. The  child  is  not  yet  a  citizen,  and  the  ethics  of 
politics,  therefore,  lie  far  beyond  its  horizon  ;  it  does 
not  yet  require  to  be  taught  professional  ethics,  and 
does  not  need  to  learn  even  the  elements  of  intellectual 
duty,  because  its  energies  are  still  absorbed  in  physical 
growth  and  play.  The  (Jnties  of  childhood  can  be 
readily  stated.  The  peculiar  duties  of  the  subsequent 
stages  of  development,  for  instance,  of  middle  life 
and  old  age,  are  complex,  and  not  so  easy  to  define. 
But  I  believe  that  the  attempt  to  describe  them  will 
throw  light  on  many  recondite  problems  in  ethics. 

My  first  point  therefore  is,  that  the  moral  teach- 
ing at  a  given  period  should  be  made  to  fit  the  special 
duties  of  that  period.  Secondly — and  this  touches 
the  core  of  the  matter — in  every  period  of  life  there 
is  some  one  predominant  duty  around  which  all  the 
others  may  be  grouped,  to  which  as  a  center  they 
may  be  referred.  Thus,  the  paramount  duty  of  the 
young  child  is  to  reverence  and  obey  its  parents. 
The  relation  of  dependence  in  which  it  stands  natu- 
rally prescribes  this  duty,  and  all  its  other  duties  can 
be  deduced  from  and  fortified  by  this  one.  The 
correctness  of  its  personal  habits  and  of  its  behavior 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  DUTIES.  45 

toward  others  depends  primarily  on  its  obedience  to 
the  parental  commands.  The  child  resists  the  tem- 
ptation to  do  what  is  wrong,  chiefly  because  it  re- 
spects the  authority  and  desires  to  win  the  approba- 
tion of  father  and  mother.  Secondary  motives  are 
not  wanting,  but  reverence  for  parents  is  the  princi- 
pal one. 

Thirdly,  in  each  new  period  there  emerges  a  new 
paramount  ethical  interest,  a  new  center  of  duties. 
But  wdth  the  new  system  of  duties  thus  created  the 
previous  ethical  systems  are  to  be  brought  into  line, 
into  harmonious  correlation.  And  this  will  be  all 
the  more  feasible,  because  the  faithful  performance 
of  the  duties  of  any  one  period  is  the  best  preparation 
for  the  true  understanding  and  fulfillment  of  those 
of  the  next.  From  these  statements  the  following 
conclusions  may  be  drawn  with  respect  to  the  ques- 
tion under  discussion — namely,  the  proper  sequence 
of  the  topics  of  duty  in  a  course  of  moral  lessons. 

The  moral  lessons  being  given  in  school,  must 
cover  the  duties  which  are  peculiar  to  the  school 
age.  The  paramount  duty  should  be  placed  in  the 
foreground.  Now  the  paramount  duty  of  children 
between  six  and  fourteen  years  of  age  is  to  acquire 
knowledge.  Hence  we  begin  the  lessons  with  the 
subject  of  intellectual  duty.  In  the  next  place,  the 
duties  learned  in  the  previous  periods  are  to  be 
brought  into  line  with  the  duties  of  the  school  age. 
At  each  new  step  on  the  road  of  ethical  progress  the 
moral  ideas  already  acquired  are  to  be  reviewed, 
confirmed,  and  to  receive  a  higher  interpretation. 


46    MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

We  have  already  seen  that,  before  the  child  enters 
school,  its  personal  duties  are  such  as  relate  to  the 
physical  life  and  the  feelings,  and  its  chief  social 
duties  are  the  filial  and  fraternal. 

Therefore,  the  order  of  topics  for  the  lessons 
thus  far  stands  :  The  duty  of  acquiring  knowledge  ; 
the  duties  which  relate  to  the  physical  life  ;  the  duties 
which  relate  to  the  feelings ;  the  filial  duties ;  the  fra- 
ternal duties. 

Again,  a  child  that  has  learned  to  respect  the 
rights  of  its  brothers  and  sisters,  and  to  be  lovingly 
helpful  to  them,  will  in  school  take  the  right  atti- 
tude toward  its  companions.  The  fraternal  duties 
are  typical  of  the  duties  which  we  owe  to  all  our 
companions,  and,  indeed,  to  all  human  beings. 

The  next  topic  of  the  lessons,  therefore,  will  be 
the  duties  which  we  owe  to  all  human  beings. 

Finally,  life  in  school  prepares  for  life  in  society 
and  in  the  state,  and  so  this  course  of  elementary 
moral  lesson  will  properly  close  with  "  The  elements 
of  civic  duty." 


THE  MORAL  OUTFIT   OF   CHILDREN   ON 
ENTERING   SCHOOL. 

It  is  diflScnlt  to  trace  the  beginnings  of  the  moral 
life  in  children.  The  traveler  who  attempts  to  fol- 
low some  great  river  to  its  source  generally  finds 
himself  confused  by  the  number  of  ponds  and 
springs  which  are  pointed  out  to  him  with  the  assur- 
ance in  the  case  of  each  that  this  and  no  other  is 
the  real  source.  In  truth,  the  river  is  fed  not  from 
one  source  but  from  many,  and  does  not  attain  its 
unity  and  individuality  until  it  has  flowed  for  some 
distance  on  its  way.  In  like  manner,  the  moral  life 
is  fed  by  many  springs,  and  does  not  assume  its  dis- 
tinctive character  until  after  several  years  of  human 
existence  have  elapsed.  The  study  of  the  develop- 
ment of  conscience  in  early  childhood  is  a  study  of 
origins,  and  these  are  always  obscure.  But,  besides, 
the  attention  hitherto  given  to  this  subject  has  been 
entirely  inadequate,  and  even  the  attempts  to  observe 
in  a  systematic  way  the  moral  manifestations  of  child- 
hood have  been  few. 

Parents  and  teachers  should  endeavor  to  answer 
such  questions  as  these :  When  do  the  first  stirrings 
of  the  moral  sense  appear  in  the  child  ?  How  do 
they  manifest  themselves  ?     What  are  the  emotional 

(47) 


48  MORAL* INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

and  the  intellectual  equipments  of  the  child  at  differ- 
ent periods,  and  how  do  tliese  correspond  with  its 
moral  outfit  ?  At  what  time  does  conscience  enter 
on  the  scene  ?  To  what  acts  or  omissions  does  the 
child  apply  the  terms  right  and  wrong  ?  If  obser- 
vations of  this  kind  were  made  with  care  and  duly 
recorded,  the  science  of  education  would  have  at  its 
disposal  a  considerable  quantity  of  material  from 
which  no  doubt  valuable  generalizations  might  be 
deduced.  Every  mother  especially  should  keep  a 
diary  in  which  to  note  the  successive  phases  of  her 
child's  physical,  mental,  and  moral  growth ;  with 
particular  attention  to  the  moral;  so  that  parents 
may  be  enabled  to  make  a  timely  forecast  of  their 
childrens'  characters,  to  foster  in  them  every  germ 
of  good,  and  by  prompt  precautions  to  suppress,  or 
at  least  restrain,  what  is  bad. 

I  propose  in  the  present  lecture  to  cast  a  glance 
at  the  moral  training  which  the  normal  child  re- 
ceives before  it  enters  school,  and  the  moral  outfit 
which  it  may  be  expected  to  bring  with  it  at  the 
time  of  entering.  Fortunately,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  go  very  deeply  into  the  study  of  development  of 
conscience  for  this  purpose.  A  few  main  points 
will  suffice  for  our  guidance. 

First  Point. — The  moral  training  of  a  child  can 
be  begun  in  its  cradle.  Regularity  is  favorable  to 
morality.  Regularity  acts  as  a  check  on  impulse. 
A  child  should  receive  its  nourishment  at  stated  in- 
tervals; it  should  become  accustomed  to  sleep  at 
certain  hours,  etc.    If  it  protests,  as  it  often  does  vig- 


MORAL  OUTFIT  OF  CHILDREN.  49 

orously  enougli,  its  protests  should  be  disregarded. 
After  a  while  its  cries  will  cease,  it  will  learn  to 
submit  to  the  rule  imposed,  and  the  taking  of  pleas- 
ure in  regularity  and  the  sense  of  discomfort  when 
the  usual  order  is  interrupted  become  thenceforth  a 
part  of  its  mental  life.  I  do  not  maintain  that 
regularity  itself  is  moral,  but  that  it  is  favorable  to 
morality  because  it  curbs  inclination.  I  do  not  say 
that  rules  are  always  good,  bat  that  the  life  of  im- 
pulse is  always  bad.  Even  when  we  do  the  good 
in  an  impulsive  way  we  are  encouraging  in  our- 
selves a  vicious  habit.  Good  conduct  consists  in 
regulating  our  life  according  to  good  principles; 
and  a  willingness  to  abide  by  rules  is  the  first,  the 
indispensable  condition  of  moral  growth.  JS"ow,  the 
habit  of  yielding  to  rules  may  be  implanted  in  a 
child  even  in  the  cradle. 

Second  Point. — A  very  young  child — one  not 
older  than  a  year  and  a  half — can  be  taught  to  obey, 
to  yield  to  the  parent's  will.  A  child  a  year  and  a 
half  old  is  capable  of  adhering  to  its  own  will  in  de- 
fiance of  the  expressed  will  of  father  or  mother. 
In  this  case  it  should  be  constrained  to  yield.  We 
shall  never  succeed  in  making  of  it  a  moral  person 
if  it  does  not  realize  betimes  that  there  exists  a 
higher  law  than  the  law  of  its  will.  And  of  this 
higher  law,  throughout  childhood,  the  parent  is,  as 
it  were,  the  embodiment.  When  I  say  that  obe- 
dience can  be  exacted  of  a  child  of  such  tender  age, 
that  a  child  so  young  is  capable  of  deliberately  op- 
posing the  will  of  the  parent,  I  speak  from  experi- 
4 


60  MORAL   INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

ence.  I  know  a  certain  little  lady  who  undertook 
a  struggle  with  her  father  precisely  in  the  way  de- 
scribed. The  struggle  lasted  fully  thirty-five  min- 
utes by  the  clock.  But  when  it  was  over,  the  child 
stretched  out  her  little  arms  and  put  up  her  lips  to 
be  kissed,  and  for  days  after  fairly  clung  to  her  father, 
showing  him  her  attachment  in  the  most  demonstra- 
tive manner.  Nor  should  this  increase  of  affection- 
ateness  excite  surprise — it  is  the  proper  result  of  a 
conflict  of  this  sort  between  father  and  child  when 
conducted  in  the  right  spirit.  The  child  is  happy 
to  be  freed  from  the  sway  of  its  wayward  caprice, 
to  feel  that  its  feeble  will  has  been  taken  up  into 
a  will  larger  and  stronger  than  its  own. 

Third  Point. — What  is  called  conscience  does 
not  usually  begin  to  show  itself  until  the  child  is  about 
three  years  old.  At  this  age  the  concept  self  usually 
emerges,  and  the  child  begins  to  use  the  personal 
pronoun  I.  This  is  one  of  these  critical  turning 
points  in  human  development,  of  which  there  are 
several.  The  beginning  of  adolescence  marks  another. 
I  am  inclined  to  suspect  that  there  is  one  at  or  about 
thirty-three.  There  seem  to  be  others  later  on.  At 
any  rate  the  first  turning  point — that  which  occurs  at 
three — is  marked  unmistakably.  At  this  time,  as  we 
have  just  said,  the  child  begins  to  be  distinctly  self- 
conscious  ;  it  says  "  I,"  and  presently  "  you,"  "  he," 
and  "  they."  Wow,  moral  rules  formulate  the  rela- 
tions which  ought  to  subsist  between  one's  self  and 
others,  and  to  comprehend  the  rules  it  is  clearly 
necessary  to  be  able  to  hold  apart  in  the  mind  and 


MORAL  OUTFIT  OF  CHILDREN.       51 

to  contrast  with  one  another  the  persons  related. 
It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  emergence  of  the 
concept  self  must  have  a  decided  effect  on  moral  de- 
velopment. 

I  feel  tempted  to  pause  here  a  moment  and  to 
say  a  word  in  passing  about  the  extreme  importance 
of  the  constituent  elements  of  the  concept  self.  For 
it  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  pronoun  "  I "  means 
the  same  thing  on  the  lips  of  every  person  who  uses 
it.  "  I "  is  a  label  denoting  a  mass  of  associated 
ideas,  and  as  these  ideas  are  capable  of  almost  end- 
less variation,  so  the  notion  of  selfhood  is  corre- 
spondingly diversified  in  different  individuals.  In 
the  case  of  children,  perhaps  the  principal  constit- 
uents of  the  concept  are  supplied  by  their  outward 
appearance  and  environment.  When  a  child  speaks 
of  itself,  it  tliinks  primarily  of  its  body,  especially 
its  face,  then  of  the  clothes  it  usually  wears,  the 
house  it  lives  in,  the  streets  through  which  it 
habitually  walks,  its  parents,  brothers,  sisters,  school- 
masters, etc.*^  If  we  analyze  the  meaning  of  "  I " 
in  the  case  of  two  children,  the  one  well-born  and 
w^ell  brought  up,  the  other  without  these  advantages, 
we  shall  perhaps  find  such  differences  as  the  follow- 
ing :  "  I "  in  the  one  case  will  mean  a  being  living 
in  a  certain  decent  and  comfortable  house,  always 
wearing  neat  clothing,  surrounded  by  parents,  broth- 

*  So  important  is  environment  in  supporting  self-conscious- 
ness, that  even  adults,  when  suddenly  transported  into  entirely 
new  surroundings,  often  experience  a  momentary  doubt  as  to 
their  identity. 


52  MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF   CHILDREN. 

ers,  and  sisters  who  speak  kindly  to  one  another  and 
have  gentle  manners,  etc.  In  the  other  case,  the 
constituents  of  the  concept  self  may  be  very  diiler- 
ent.  ''  I  "  in  the  case  of  the  second  child  may  mean 
a  creature  that  lives  in  a  dark,  filthy  hovel  and  walks 
every  day  through  narrow  streets,  reeking  with  garb- 
age. "  I "  may  mean  the  child  of  a  father  who  comes 
home  drunk  and  strikes  the  mother  when  the  angry 
fit  is  upon  him.  "  I "  stands  for  a  poor  waif  that 
wears  torn  clothes,  and  when  he  sits  in  school  by  the 
side  of  well-dressed  children  is  looked  at  askance 
and  put  to  shame.  It  is  obvious  that  the  elements 
which  go  to  make  up  the  concept  self  affect  the 
child's  moral  nature  by  lowering  or  raising  its  self- 
esteem.  I  remember  the  case  of  one,  who  as  a  boy 
was  the  laughing-stock  of  his  class  on  account  of  the 
old-fashioned,  ill-fitting  clothes  which  he  was  com- 
pelled to  wear,  and  who  has  confessed  that  even  late 
in  life  he  could  not  entirely  overcome  the  effect  of 
this  early  humiliation,  and  that  he  continued  to  be 
painfully  aware  in  himself,  in  consequence,  of  a  cer- 
tain lack  of  ease  and  self-possession.  Hence  we 
should  see  to  it  that  the  constituent  elements  of  the 
concept  self  are  of  the  right  kind.  It  is  a  mistake 
to  suppose  that  the  idea  of  selfhood  stands  off  in- . 
dependently  from  the  elements  of  our  environment. 
The  latter  enter  into,  and  when  they  are  bad  eat  into, 
the  very  kernel  of  our  nature. 

We  have  seen  that  the  development  of  the  in- 
tellect as  it  appears  in  the  growing  distinctness  of 
self-consciousness   exercises  an  important  infiuence 


MORAL  OUTFIT  OF  CHILDREN.  53 

on  the  development  of  the  moral  faculty.  But 
there  is  still  another  way  in  which  this  influence  be- 
comes apparent.  The  function  of  conscience  further 
depends  on  the  j)ower  of  keeping  alternative  courses 
of  action  before  the  mind.  Angels  capable  only  of  the 
good,  or  fiends  actuated  exclusively  by  malice,  could 
not  be  called  moral  creatures.  A  moral  act  always 
presupposes  a  previous  choice  between  two  possible 
lines  of  action.  And  until  the  power  of  holding 
the  judgment  in  suspense,  of  hesitating  between  al- 
ternative lines  of  conduct,  has  been  acquired,  con- 
science, strictly  speaking,  does  not  manifest  itself. 
We  may  say  that  the  voice  of  conscience  begins  to 
be  heard  when,  the  parent  being  absent,  the  child 
hesitates  between  a  forbidden  pleasure  and  obedience 
to  the  parental  command.  Of  course,  not  every 
choice  between  alternative  courses  is  a  moral  act.  If 
any  one  hesitates  whether  to  remain  at  home  or  to  go 
for  a  walk,  whether  to  take  a  road  to  the  right  or 
to  the  left,  the  decision  is  morally  indifferent.  But 
whenever  one  of  the  alternative  courses  is  good  and 
the  other  bad,  conscience  does  come  into  play. 

At  this  point,  however,  the  question  forcibly 
presents  itself.  How  does  it  come  to  pass  in  the 
experience  of  children  that  they  learn  to  regard  cer- 
tain lines  of  action  as  good  and  others  as  bad  ?  You 
will  readily  answer.  The  parent  characterizes  cer- 
tain acts  as  good  and  others  as  bad,  and  the  child 
accepts  his  definition  ;  and  this  is  undoubtedly  true. 
The  parent's  word  is  the  main  pTop  of  the  budding 
conscience.     But  how  comes  the  parent's  word  to 


54  MORAL   INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

produce  belief  ?  This  is  indeed  the  crucial  question 
touching  the  development  of  the  moral  faculty. 
Mr.  Bain  says  that  the  child  fears  the  punishment 
which  the  parent  will  inflict  in  case  of  disobedience  ; 
that  the  essential  form  and  defining  quality  of 
conscience  from  first  to  last  is  of  the  nature 
of  dread.  He  seems  to  classify  the  child's  con- 
science with  the  criminal  conscience,  the  rebel  con- 
science which  must  be  energized  by  the  fear  of 
penalties.  But  this  explanation  seems  very  unsatis- 
factory. Every  one,  of  course,  must  admit  that 
the  confirmations  of  experience  tend  greatly  to 
strengthen  the  parent's  authority.  The  parent 
says.  You  must  be  neat.  The  child,  if  it  does  as 
it  is  bidden,  finds  an  sesthetic  pleasure  in  its  becom- 
ing appearance.  The  parent  says.  You  must  not 
strike  your  little  brother,  but  be  kind  to  him  ;  and 
the  child,  on  restraining  its  anger,  is  gratified  by  the 
loving  words  and  looks  which  it  receives  in  return. 
The  parent  says.  You  must  not  touch  the  stove,  or 
you  will  be  burned.  The  disobedient  child  is  effect- 
ually warned  by  the  pain  it  suffers  to  be  more  obedi- 
ent in  future.  But  all  such  confirmations  are  mere 
external  aids  to  parental  authority.  They  do  not 
explain  the  feeling  of  reverence  with  which  even  a 
young  child,  when  rightly  brought  up,  is  wont  to 
look  up  to  his  father's  face.  To  explain  this  senti- 
ment of  reverence,  I  must  ask  you  to  consider  the 
following  train  of  reasoning.  It  has  been  remarked 
already  that  the  parent  should  be  to  the  child  the  vis- 
ible embodiment  of  a  higher  law.     This  higher  law 


MORAL   OUTFIT  OF  CHILDREN.  55 

shining  from  the  father's  countenance,  making  its 
subhme  presence  felt  in  the  mother's  eye,  wakens 
an  answering  vibration  in  the  child's  heart.  The 
child  feels  the  higher  presence  and  bows  to  it, 
though  it  could  not,  if  it  tried,  analyze  or  explain 
what  it  feels.  We  should  never  forget  that  children 
possess  the  capacity  for  moral  development  from  the 
outset.  It  is  indeed  the  fashion  with  some  modern 
writers  to  speak  of  the  child  as  if  it  were  at  first  a 
mere  animal,  and  as  if  reflection  and  morality  were 
mechanically  superadded  later  on.  But  the  whole 
future  man  is  already  hidden,  not  yet  declared, 
but  latent  all  the  same  in  the  child's  heart.  The 
germs  of  humanity  in  its  totality  exist  in  tlie  young 
being.  Else  how  could  it  ever  unfold  into  full-grown 
morality  ?  It  will  perhaps  serve  to  make  my  mean- 
ing clearer  if  I  call  attention  to  analogous  facts  relat- 
ing to  the  intellectual  faculty.  The  formula  of  caus- 
ality is  a  very  abstract  one,  which  only  a  thoroughly 
trained  mind  can  grasp.  But  even  very  young  chil- 
dren are  constantly  asking  questions  as  to  the  causes 
of  things.  What  makes  the  trees  grow  ?  what  makes 
the  stars  shine  ? — i.  e.,  what  is  the  cause  of  the  trees 
growing  and  the  stars  shining  ?  The  child  is  con- 
stantly pushing,  or  rather  groping,  its  way  back 
from  effects  to  causes.  The  child's  mind  acts  under 
what  may  be  called  the  causative  instinct  long  before 
it  can  apprehend  the  law  of  causation.  In  the 
same  way  young  children  perfectly  follow  the  pro- 
cess of  syllogistic  reasoning.  If  a  father  says,  on 
leaving  the  house  for  a  walk :  I  can  take  with  me 


56  MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF   CHILDREN. 

only  a  child  that  has  been  good ;  now,  you  have  not 
been  good  to-day ;  the  child  without  any  difficulty 
draws  the  conclusion.  Therefore  I  can  not  go  out 
walking  with  my  father  to-day.  The  logical  laws 
are,  as  it  were,  prefigured  in  the  child's  mind  long 
before,  under  the  chemical  action  of  experience  they 
come  out  in  the  bright  colors  of  consciousness.  Or, 
to  use  another  figure,  they  exert  a  pressure  on  the 
child  of  which  he  himself  can  give  no  account. 
And  in  like  manner  the  moral  law — the  law  which 
prescribes  certain  relations  between  self  and  others — 
is,  so  to  speak,  prefigured  in  the  child's  mind,  and 
when  it  is  expressed  in  commands  uttered  by  the 
parent,  the  pressure  of  external  authority  is  con- 
firmed by  a  pressure  coming  from  within.  We  can 
illustrate  the  same  idea  from  another  point  of  view. 
Whenever  a  man  of  commanding  moral  genius  ap- 
pears in  the  world  and  speaks  to  the  multitude  from 
his  height,  they  are  for  the  moment  lifted  to  his 
level  and  feel  the  afflatus  of  his  spirit.  This  is  so 
because  he  expresses  potentialities  of  human  nature 
which  also  exist  in  them,  only  not  unfolded  to  the 
same  degree  as  in  him.  It  is  a  matter  of  common 
observation  that  persons  who  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances are  content  to  admire  what  is  third  rate  and 
fourth  rate  are  yet  able  to  appreciate  what  is  first 
rate  when  it  is  presented  to  them — at  least  to  the  ex- 
tent of  recognizing  that  it  is  first  rate.  And  yet 
their  lack  of  development  shows  itself  in  the  fact 
that  presently  they  again  lose  their  hold  on  the 
higher  standard  of  excellence,  and  are  thereafter  con- 


MORAL  OUTFIT  OF  CHILDREN.  57 

> 

tent  to  put  up  with  what  is  inferior  as  if  the  glimpses 
of  better  things  had  never  been  opened  to  them.  Is 
it  not  because,  though  capable  of  rising  to  the  higher 
level,  they  are  not  capable  of  maintaining  them- 
selves on  it  unassisted.  Now,  the  case  of  the  parent 
with  respect  to  the  child  is  analogous.  He  is  on  a 
superior  moral  plane.  The  child  feels  that  he  is, 
without  being  able  to  understand  why.  It  feels  the 
afflatus  of  the  higher  spirit  dwelling  in  the  parent, 
and  out  of  this  feeling  is  generated  the  sentiment  of 
reverence.  And  there  is  no  greater  benefit  which 
father  or  mother  can  confer  on  their  offspring  than 
to  deepen  this  sentiment.  It  is  by  this  means  that 
they  can  most  efficiently  promote  the  development 
of  the  child's  conscience,  for  out  of  this  reverence 
will  grow  eventually  respect  for  all  rightly  consti- 
tuted authority,  respect  and  reverence  for  law,  hu- 
man and  divine.  The  essential  form  and  defining 
quality  of  conscience  is  not,  therefore,  as  Bain  has 
it — fear  of  punishment.  In  my  opinion  such  fear  is 
abject  and  cowardly.  The  sentiment  engendered  by 
fear  is  totally  different  from  the  one  w^e  are  con- 
templating, as  the  following  consideration  will  serve 
to  show  :  A  child  fears  its  father  when  he  punishes  it 
in  anger  ;  and  the  more  violent  his  passion,  the  more 
does  the  child  fear  him.  But,  no  matter  how  stern 
the  penalty  may  be  which  he  has  to  infiict,  the 
child  reveres  its  father  in  proportion  as  the  traces  of 
anger  are  banished  from  his  mien  and  bearing,  in 
proportion  as  the  parent  shows  by  his  manner  that 
he  acts  from  a  sense  of  duty,  that  he  has  his  eye 


58  MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

fixed  on  the  sacred  measures  of  right  and  wrong, 
that  he  himself  stands  in  awe  of  the  subhme  com- 
mands of  which  he  is,  for  the  time  being,  the  ex- 
ponent. 

To  recapitulate  briefly  the  points  which  we  have 
gone  over :  regular  habits  can  be  inculcated  and 
obedience  can  be  taught  even  in  infancy.  By  obe- 
dience  is  meant  the   yielding  of   a  wayward   and 

I  ignorant  will  to  a  firm  and  enlightened  one.  The 
child  between  three  and  six  years  of  age  learns 
clearly  to  distinguish  self  from  others,  and  to  delib- 
erate between  alternative  courses  of  action.     It  is 

'  highly  important  to  control  the  elements  which 
enter  into  the  concept  self.  The  desire  to  choose 
the  good  is  promoted  chiefly  by  the  sentiment  of 
reverence. 

We  are  thus  prepared  to  describe  in  a  general 
way  the  moral  outfit  of  the  child  on  entering  school. 
We  have,  indeed,  already  described  it.  The  moral 
acquirements  of  the  child  at  the  age  of  which  we 
speak  express  themselves  in  habits.  The  normal 
child,  under  the  influences  of  parental  example  and 
command,  has  acquired  such  habits  as  that  of  per- 
sonal cleanliness,  of  temperance  in  eating,  of  respect 
for  the  truth.  Having  learned  to  use  the  pronouns  I 
and  thou,  it  also  begins  to  understand  the  difference 
between  rriexiin  and  timm.  The  property  sense 
begins  to  be  developed.  It  claims  its  own  seat  at 
table,  its  own  toys  against  the  aggression  of  others. 
It  has  gained  in  an  elementary  way  the  notion  of 
rights. 


MORAL  OUTFIT  OF  CHILDREN.       59 

This  is  a  stock  of  acquirements  by  no  means  in- 
considerable. The  next  step  in  the  progress  of  con- 
science must  be  taken  in  the  school.  Until  now 
the  child  has  been  aware  of  duties  relating  only  or 
principally  to  persons  whom  it  loves  and  who  love  it. 
The  motive  of  love  is  now  to  become  less  promi- 
nent. A  part  of  that  reverence  which  the  child  has 
felt  for  the  parents  whom  it  loves  is  now  to  be 
transferred  to  the  teacher.  A  part  of  that  respect 
for  the  rights  of  equals  which  has  been  impressed 
upon  it  in  its  intercourse  with  brothers  and  sisters, 
to  whom  it  is  bound  by  the  ties  of  blood,  is  now  to 
be  transferred  to  its  school  companions,  who  are 
at  first  strangers  to  it.  Thus  the  conscience  of  the 
child  will  be  expanded,  thus  it  will  be  prepared  for 
intercourse  with  the  world.  Thus  it  will  begin  to 
gain  that  higher  understanding  of  morality,  accord- 
ing to  which  authority  is  to  be  obeyed  simply  be- 
cause it  is  rightful,  and  equals  are  to  be  treated  as 
equals,  even  when  they  are  not  and  can  not  be  re- 
garded with  affection. 

I  have  in  the  above  used  the  word  habits  advised- 
ly. The  morality  of  the  young  child  assumes  the 
concrete  form  of  habits ;  abstract  principles  are  still 
beyond  its  grasp.  Habits  are  acquired  by  imitation 
and  repetition.  Good  examples  must  be  so  persist- 
ently presented  and  so  often  copied  that  the  line  of 
moral  conduct  may  become  the  line  of  least  resist- 
ance. The  example  of  parents  and  teachers  is  in- 
deed specially  important  in  this  respect.  But  after 
all  it  is  not  sufficient.    For  the  temptations  of  adults 


60         MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OP  CHILDREN. 

differ  in  many  ways  from  those  of  children,  and 
on  the  other  hand  in  the  lives  of  older  persons  oc- 
casions are  often  wanting  for  illustrating  just  the 
peculiar  virtues  of  childhood.  On  this  account  it  is 
necessary  to  set  before  the  child  ideal  examples  of 
the  virtues  of  children  and  of  the  particular  tempta- 
tions, against  which  they  need  to  be  warned.  Of 
such  examples  w^e  find  a  large  stock  ready  to  hand 
in  the  literature  of  fairy  tales,  fables,  and  stories. 
In  our  next  lecture  therefore  we  shall  begin  to  con- 
sider the  use  of  fairy  tales,  fables,  and  stories  as  means 
of  creating  in  children  those  habits  which  are  essen- 
tial to  the  safe  guarding  and  unfolding  of  their  moral 
life. 


PKIMAKY  COUKSE. 


/ 


VI. 
THE  USE  OF  FAIRY  TALES. 

There  has  been  and  still  is  considerable  differ- 
ence of  opinion  among  educators  as  to  the  value  of 
fairy  tales.  I  venture  to  think  that,  as  in  many  other 
cases,  the  cause  of  the  quarrel  is  what  logicians 
call  an  undistributed  middle — in  other  words,  that 
the  parties  to  the  dispute  have  each  a  different  kind 
of  fairy  tale  in  mind.  This  species  of  literature  can 
be  divided  broadly  into  two  classes — one  consisting 
of  tales  which  ought  to  be  rejected  because  they  are 
really  harmful,  and  children  ought  to  be  protected 
from  their  bad  influence,  the  other  of  tales  which 
have  a  most  beautiful  and  elevating  effect,  and  which 
we  can  not  possibly  afford  to  leave  unutilized. 

The  chief  pedagogic  value  they  possess  is  that 
they  exercise  and  cultivate  the  imagination.  Now, 
the  imagination  is  a  most  powerful  auxiliary  in  the 
development  of  the  mind  and  will.  The  familiar 
anecdote  related  of  Marie  Antoinette,  who  is  said 
to  have  asked  why  the  ^  people  did  not  eat  cake 
when  she  was  told  that  they  were  in  want  of  bread, 
indicates  a  deficiency  of  imagination.  Brought  up 
amid  the  splendor  of  conrts,  surrounded  by  luxury, 
she  could  not  put  herself  in  the  place  of  those  who 
lack  the  very  necessaries.     Much  of  the  selfishness 

(63) 


64         MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF   CHILDREN. 

of  the  world  is  due  not  to  actual  hard-heartedness, 
but  to  a  similar  lack  of  imaginative  power.  It  is 
difficult  for  tlie  happy  to  realize  the  needs  of  the 
miserable.  Did  they  realize  those  needs,  they  would 
in  many  cases  be  melted  to  j)ity  and  roused  to  help. 
The  faculty  of  putting  one's  self  in  the  place  of  others 
is  therefore  of  great,  though  indirect,  service  to  the 
cause  of  morality,  and  this  faculty  may  be  cultivated 
by  means  of  fairy  tales.  As  they  follow  intently 
the  progress  of  the  story,  the  young  listeners  are  con- 
stantly called  upon  to  place  themselves  in  the  situa- 
tions in  which  they  have  never  been,  to  imagine 
trials,  dangers,  difficulties,  such  as  they  have  never  ex- 
perienced, to  rejDroduce  in  themselves,  for  instance, 
such  feelings  as  that  of  being  alone  in  the  wide 
world,  of  being  separated  from  father's  and  mother's 
love,  of  being  hungry  and  without  bread,  exposed 
to  enemies  without  protection,  etc.  Thus  their  sym- 
pathy in  a  variety  of  forms  is  aroused. 

In  the  next  place,  fairy  tales  stimulate  the  idealiz- 
ing tendency.  What  were  life  worth  without  ideals ! 
How  could  hope  or  even  religion  germinate  in  the 
human  heart  were  we  not  able  to  confront  the  dis- 
appointing present  with  visions  which  represent  the 
fulfillment  of  our  desires.  "  Faith,"  says  Paul,  "  is 
the  confidence  of  things  hoped  for,  the  certainty  of 
things  not  seen."  Thus  faith  itself  can  not  abide 
unless  supported  by  a  vivid  idealism.  It  is  true,  the 
ideals  of  childhood  are  childish.  In  the  story  called 
Das  Marienlvind  we  hear  of  the  little  daughter  of  a 
poor  wood-cutter  who  was  taken  up  bodily  into  heav- 


THE   USE   OF   FAIRY   TALES.  65 

en.  There  she  ate  sweetmeats  and  drank  cream  every 
day  and  wore  dresses  made  of  gold,  and  the  angels 
played  with  her.  Sweetmeats  and  cream  in  plenty 
and  golden  dresses  and  dear  little  angels  to  play  with 
may  represent  the  ideals  of  a  young  child,  and  these 
are  materialistic  enough.  But  I  hold  nevertheless 
that  something — nay,  much — has  been  gained  if  a 
child  has  learned  to  take  the  washes  out  of  its  heart, 
as  it  were,  and  to  project  them  on  the  screen  of  fancy. 
As  it  grows  up  to  manhood,  the  wishes  will  become 
more  spiritual,  and  the  ideals,  too,  will  become  cor- 
respondingly elevated.  In  speaking  of  fairy  tales  I 
have  in  mind  chiefly  the  German  Mdrchen^  of  wliich 
the  word  fairy  tale  is  but  an  inaccurate  rendering. 
The  Mdrclien  are  more  than  mere  tales  of  helpful 
fairies.  They  have,  as  is  well-known,  a  mythologi- 
cal background.  They  still  bear  distinct  traces  of 
ancient  animism,  and  the  myths  which  center  about 
the  phenomena  of  the  storm,  the  battle  of  the  sun 
wdth  the  clouds,  the  struggle  of  the  fair  spring  god 
with  the  dark  winter  demons,  are  in  them  leading 
themes.  But  what  originally  was  the  outgrowth  of 
superstition  has  now,  to  a  great  extent  at  least,  been 
purified  of  its  dross  and  converted  into  mere  poetry. 
The  Mdrchen  come  to  us  from  a  time  when  the 
world  was  young.  They  represent  the  childhood  of 
mankind,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  they  never 
cease  to  appeal  to  children.  The  Mdrchen  have  a 
subtile  flavor  all  their  own.  They  are  pervaded  by 
the  poetry  of  forest  life,  are  full  of  the  sense  of 
mystery  and  awe,  which  is  apt  to  overcome  one  on 


66  MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF   CHILDREN. 

penetrating  deeper  and  deeper  into  tlie  woods, 
away  from  liuman  habitations.  Tlie  Mdrchen  deal 
with  the  underground  life  of  nature,  which  weaves 
in  caverns  and  in  the  heart  of  mountains,  where 
gnomes  and  dwarfs  are  at  work  gathering  hidden 
treasures.  And  with  this  underground  life  children 
have  a  marvelous  sympathy.  The  Mdrchen  present 
glowing  pictures  of  sheltered  firesides,  where  man 
finds  rest  and  security  from  howling  winds  and 
nipping  cold.  But  perhaps  their  chief  attraction  is 
due  to  their  representing  the  child  as  living  in 
brotherly  fellowship  w4th  nature  and  all  creatures. 
Trees,  flowers,  animals  wild  and  tame,  even  the  stars, 
are  represented  as  the  comrades  of  children.  That 
animals  are  only  human  beings  in  disguise  is  an 
axiom  in  the  fairy  tales.  Animals  are  humanized — 
i.  e.,  the  kinship  between  animal  and  human  life  is 
still  strongly  felt,  and  this  reminds  us  of  those  early 
animistic  interpretations  of  nature,  which  subse- 
quently led  to  doctrines  of  metempsychosis.  Plants, 
too,  are  often  represented  as  incarnations  of  hu- 
man spirits.  Thus  the  twelve  lilies  are  inhabited 
by  the  twelve  brothers,  and  in  tlie  story  of  Snow- 
white  and  Kose-red  the  life  of  the  two  maidens  ap- 
pears to  be  bound  up  with  the  life  of  the  white  and 
red  rosebush.  The  kinship  of  all  life  whatsoever  is 
still  realized.  This  being  so,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
men  should  understand  the  language  of  animals,  and 
that  these  should  interfere  to  protect  the  heroes  and 
heroines  of  the  Mdrchen  fi-om  threatened  dangers. 
In  the  story  of  the  faithful  servant  John,  the  three 


THE  USE  OF  FAIRY  TALES.        07 

ravens  flying  above  the  ship  reveal  the  secret  of  the 
red  horse,  the  sulphurous  shirt,  and  the  three  drops  of 
blood,  and  John,  who  understands  their  communica- 
tions, is  thereby  enabled  to  save  his  master's  life. 
"What,  again,  can  be  more  beautiful  than  the  way  in 
which  the  tree  and  the  two  white  doves  co-operate  to 
secure  the  happiness  of  the  injured  Cinderella !  The 
tree  rains  down  the  golden  dresses  with  which  she 
appears  at  the  ball,  and  the  doves  continue  to  warn 
the  prince  as  he  rides  by  that  he  has  chosen  the 
wrong  bride  until  Cinderella  herself  passes,  when  they 
light  on  her  shoulders,  one  on  her  right  and  the 
other  on  her  left,  making,  perhaps,  the  loveliest  pict- 
ure to  be  found  in  all  fairy  lore.  The  child  still 
lives  in  unbroken  communion  with  the  whole  of 
nature ;  the  harmony  between  its  own  life  and  the 
enveloping  life  has  not  yet  been  disturbed,  and  it  is 
this  harmony  of  the  human  with  the  natural  world 
that  reflects  itself  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  Mdrchen^ 
and  makes  them  so  admirably  suited  to  satisfy  the 
heart  of  childhood. 

But  how  shall  we  handle  these  Mdrchen  and 
what  method  shall  we  employ  in  putting  them  to 
account  for  our  special  purpose?  I  have  a  few 
thoughts  on  this  subject,  which  I  shall  venture  to 
submit  in  the  form  of  counsels. 

Mj first  GOimsel  is:  Tell  the  story;  do  not  give 
it  to  the  child  to  read.  There  is  an  obvious  prac- 
tical reason  for  this.  Children  are  able  to  benefit 
by  hearing  fairy  tales  before  they  can  read.  But 
that  is  not  the  only  reason.     It  is  the  childhood  of 


68  MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

the  race,  as  we  have  seen,  that  speaks  in  the  fairy 
story  to  the  child  of  to-day.  It  is  the  voice  of  an 
ancient,  far-off  past  that  echoes  from  the  lips  of  the 
story-teller.  The  words  "  once  npon  a  time  "  open 
up  a  vague  retrospect  into  the  past,  and  the  child 
gets  its  first  indistinct  notions  of  history  in  this  way. 
The  stories  embody  the  tradition  of  the  childhood 
of  mankind.  They  have  on  this  account  an  author- 
ity all  their  own,  not  indeed  that  of  literal  truth, 
but  one  derived  from  their  being  types  of  certain 
feelings  and  longings  which  belong  to  childhood  as 
such.  The  child  as  it  listens  to  the  Mdrchenj  looks 
up  with  wide-opened  eyes  to  the  face  of  the  person 
who  tells  the  story,  and  thrills  responsive  as  the 
touch  of  the  earlier  life  of  the  race  thus  falls  upon 
its  own.  Such  an  effect,  of  course,  can  not  be  pro- 
duced by  cold  type.  Tradition  is  a  living  thing, 
and  should  use  the  living  voice  for  its  vehicle. 

My  second  counsel  i^  also  of  a  practical  nature, 
and  I  make  bold  to  say  quite  essential  to  the  suc- 
cessful use  of  the  stories.  Do  not  take  the  moral 
plum  out  of  the  fairy-tale  pudding,  but  let  the 
child  enjoy  it  as  a  whole.  Do  not  make  the  story 
taper  toward  a  single  point,  the  moral  point.  You 
will  squeeze  all  the  juice  out  of  it  if  you  try.  Do 
not  subordinate  the  purely  fanciful  and  naturalistic 
elements  of  the  story,  such  as  the  love  of  mystery, 
the  passion  for  roving,  the  sense  of  fellowship  with 
the  animal  world,  in  order  to  fix  attention  solely  on 
the  moral  element.  On  the  contrary,  you  will  gain 
the  best  m.oral  effect  by  proceeding  in  exactly  the 


THE   USE   OF   FAIRY  TALES.  69 

opposite  way.  Treat  the  moral  element  as  an  inci- 
dent ;  emphasize,  it  indeed,  but  incidentally.  Pluck 
it  as  a  wayside  flower.  How  often  does  it  happen 
that,  having  set  out  on  a  journey  with  a  distinct  ob- 
ject in  mind,  something  occurs  on  the  way  which  we 
had  not  foreseen,  but  which  in  the  end  leaves  the 
deepest  impression  on  the  mind.  The  object  which 
we  had  in  view  is  long  forgotten,  but  the  incident 
which  happened  by  the  way  is  remembered  for 
years  after.  So  the  moral  result  of  the  Mdrchen 
will  not  be  less  sure  because  gained  incidentally. 
An  illustration  will  make  plain  what  I  mean.  In 
the  story  of  the  Frog  King  we  are  told  that  there 
was  once  a  young  princess  who  was  so  beautiful  that 
even  the  Sun,  v/hich  sees  a  great  many  things,  had 
never  seen  anything  so  beautiful  as  she  was.  A 
golden  ball  was  her  favorite  plaything.  One  day, 
as  she  sat  by  a  well  under  an  old  linden  tree,  she 
tossed  the  ball  into  the  air  and  it  fell  into  the  well. 
She  was  very  unhappy,  and  cried  bitterly.  Pres- 
ently a  frog  put  his  ugly  head  out  of  the  water, 
and  offered  to  dive  for  the  ball,  on  condition,  how- 
ever, that  she  would  promise  to  take  him  for  her 
playmate,  to  let  him  eat  off  her  golden  plate  and 
drink  out  of  her  golden  cup  and  sleep  in  her  little 
snow-white  bed.  The  princess  promised  everything. 
But  no  sooner  had  the  frog  brought  her  the  ball 
than  she  scampered  away,  heedless  of  his  cries. 
The  next  day  as  the  royal  family  sat  at  dinner  a 
knock  was  heard  at  the  door.  The  princess  opened 
and  beheld  the  ugly  toad  claiming  admittance.     She 


70  MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF   CHILDREN. 

screamed  with  friglit  and  hastily  shut  the  door 
in  his  face.  But  when  the  king,  her  father,  had 
questioned  her,  he  said,  "  What  you  have  promised, 
you  must  keep  "  ;  and  she  obeyed  her  father,  though 
it  was  sorely  against  her  inclination  to  do  so.  That 
was  right,  children,  was  it  not  ?  One  must  always 
obey,  even  if  one  does  not  like  what  one  is  told 
to  do.  So  the  toad  was  brought  in  and  lifted  to 
the  table,  and  he  ate  ofi  the  little  golden  plate  and 
drank  out  of  the  golden  cup.  And  when  he  had 
had  enough,  he  said,  "  I  am  tired  now,  put  me  into 
your  little  snow-white  bed."  And  again  when  she 
refused  her  father  said  :  "  What  you  have  promised 
you  must  keep.  Ugly  though  he  is,  he  helped  you 
when  you  were  in  distress,  and  you  must  not  despise 
him  now."  And  the  upshot  of  the  story  is  that  the 
ugly  toad,  having  been  thrown  against  the  wall,  was 
changed  into  a  beautiful  prince,  and  of  course  some 
time  after  the  prince  and  the  princess  were  mar- 
ried. 

The  naturalistic  element  of  the  story  is  the 
changing  of  the  prince  into  a  toad  and  back  again 
from  a  toad  into  a  prince.  Children  are  very  fond 
of  disguises.  It  is  one  of  their  greatest  pleasures  to 
imagine  things  to  be  other  than  they  are.  And  one 
of  the  chief  attractions  of  such  stories  as  the  one  w^e 
have  related  is  that  they  cater  to  the  fondness  of  the 
little  folks  for  this  sort  of  masquerading.  The  moral 
elements  of  the  story  are  obvious.  They  should  be 
touched  on  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  divert  the  in- 
terest from  the  main  story. 


THE   USE   OF  FAIRY  TALES.  71 

My  third  counsel  is  to  eliminate  from  the  stories 
whatever  is  merely  superstitions,  merely  a  relic  of 
ancient  animism,  and  of  course  whatever  is  objec- 
tionable on  moral  grounds.  For  instance,  such  a 
story  as  that  of  the  idle  spinner,  the  purport  of 
which  seems  to  be  that  there  is  a  special  providence 
watching  over  lazy  people.  Likewise  all  those 
stories  which  turn  upon  the  success  of  trickery 
and  cunning.  A  special  question  arising  under 
this  head,  and  one  which  has  been  the  subject  of 
much  vexed  discussion,  is  in  how  far  we  should  ac- 
quaint children  with  the  existence  of  evil  in  the 
world,  and  to  what  extent  we  can  use  stories  in 
which  evil  beings  and  evil  motives  are  introduced. 
My  own  view  is  that  we  should  speak  in  the  child's 
hearing  only  of  those  lesser  forms  of  evil,  physical  or 
moral,  with  which  it  is  already  acquainted,  but  ex- 
clude all  those  forms  of  evil  which  lie  beyond  its 
present  experience.  On  this  ground  I  should  reject 
the  whole  brood  of  step-mother  stories,  or  rather,  as 
this  might  make  too  wide  a  swath,  I  should  take  the 
liberty  of  altering  stories  in  which  the  typical  bad 
step-mother  occurs,  but  which  are  otherwise  valuable. 
There  is  no  reason  why  children  should  be  taught  to 
look  on  step-mothers  in  general  as  evilly  disposed 
persons.  The  same  applies  to  stories  in  which 
unnatural  fathers  are  mentioned.  I  should  also 
rule  out  such  stories  as  that  of  The  Wolf  and  The 
Seven  Little  Goats.  The  mother  goat,  on  leaving 
the  house,  warns  her  little  ones  against  the  wolf, 
and  gives  them  two  signs  by  which  they  can  detect 


Y2  MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

him — his  hoarse  voice  and  black  paws.  The  wolf 
Jvnocks  and  finds  himself  discovered.  He  thereupon 
swallows  chalk  to  improve  his  voice  and  compels 
the  miller  to  whiten  his  paws.  Then  he  knocks 
again,  is  admitted,  leaps  into  the  room,  and  devours 
the  little  goats  one  by  one.  The  story,  as  used  in 
the  nursery,  has  a  transparent  purpose.  It  is  in- 
tended to  warn  little  children  who  are  left  at  home 
alone  against  admitting  strangers.  The  wolf  repre- 
sents evil  beings  in  general — tramps,  burglars,  people 
who  come  to  kidnap  children,  etc.  Now  I,  for  one, 
should  not  wish  to  implant  this  fear  of  strangers 
into  the  minds  of  the  young.  Fear  is  demoralizing. 
Children  should  look  with  confidence  and  trust  up- 
on all  men.  They  need  not  be  taught  to  fear  rob- 
bers and  burglars.  Even  the  sight  of  wild  animals 
need  not  awaken  dread.  Children  naturally  admire 
the  beauty  of  the  tiger's  skin,  and  the  lion  in  their 
eyes  is  a  noble  creature,  of  whose  ferocity  they  have 
no  conception.  It  is  time  enough  for  them  later  on 
to  familiarize  themselves  with  the  fact  that  evil  of  a 
sinister  sort  exists  within  human  society  and  outside 
of  it.  And  it  will  be  safe  for  them  to  face  this  fact 
then  only,  when  they  can  couple  with  it  the  convic- 
tion that  the  forces  of  right  and  order  in  the  world 
are  strong  enough  to  grapple  with  the  sinister  powers 
and  hold  them  in  subjection. 

And  now  let  us  review  a  number  of  the 
Mdrchen  against  which  none  of  these  objections 
lie,  which  are  delicious  food  for  children's  minds, 
and   consider  the  place  they  occupy  in  a  scheme 


THE  USE  OF  FAIRY   TALES.  73 

of  moral  training.  It  has  been  already  stated  that 
each  period  of  human  life  has  a  set  of  duties  peculiar 
to  itself.  The  principal  duties  of  childhood  are: 
Obedience  to  parents,  love  and  kindness  toward 
brothers  and  sisters,  a  proper  regard  for  the  feelings 
of  servants,  and  kindness  toward  animals.  We  can 
classify  the  fairy  tales  which  we  can  use  under  these 
various  heads.  Let  us  begin  wdth  the  topic  last 
mentioned. 

Tales  illustrating  Kindness  toward  Animals, 

The  House  in  the  "Woods. — The  daughter  of  a 
poor  wood-cutter  is  lost  in  the  woods,  and  comes  at 
night  to  a  lonely  house.  An  old  man  is  sitting 
within.  Three  animals — a  cow,  a  cock,  and  a  chick- 
en— lie  on  the  hearth.  The  child  is  made  wel- 
come, and  is  asked  to  prepare  supper.  She  cooks 
for  the  old  man  and  herself,  but  forgets  the  ani- 
mals. The  second  daughter  likewise  goes  astray 
in  the  woods,  comes  to  the  same  house,  and  acts  in 
the  same  way.  The  third  daughter,  a  sweet,  loving 
child,  before  sitting  down  to  her  own  meal,  brings 
in  hay  for  the  cow  and  barley  for  the  cock  and 
chicken,  and  by  this  act  of  kindness  to  animals 
breaks  the  spell  which  had  been  cast  upon  the  house. 
The  old  man  is  immediately  transformed  into  a 
prince,  etc. 

The  Story  of  the  Dog  Sultan. — Sultan  is  old,  and 
about  to  be  shot  by  his  master.  The  w^olf ,  seeing 
his  cousin  the  dog  in  such  distress,  promises  to  help 
him.     He  arranges   that   on  the   morrow  he  will 


74         MORAL   INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN 

seize  a  sheep  belonging  to  Sultan's  master.  The  dog 
is  to  run  after  him,  and  he,  the  wolf,  will  drop  the 
sheep  and  Sultan  shall  get  the  credit  of  the  rescue. 
Everything  passes  off  as  prearranged,  and  Sultan's 
life  is  spared  by  his  grateful  owner.  Some  time 
after  the  wolf  comes  prowling  around  the  house,  and, 
reminding  his  friend  that  one  good  turn  deserves 
another,  declares  that  he  has  now  come  for  mutton 
in  good  earnest.  But  the  dog  replies  that  nothing 
can  tempt  him  to  betray  the  interests  of  his  master. 
The  wolf  persists,  but  Sultan  gives  the  alarm  and 
the  thief  receives  his  due  in  the  shape  of  a  sound 
beating. 

The  point  of  special  interest  in  the  beautiful 
story  of  Snow-white  and  Kose-red  above  referred  to 
is  the  incident  of  the  bear.  One  cold  winter's  night 
some  one  knocks  at  the  door.  Snow^-white  and 
Rose-red  go  to  open,  when  a  huge  black  bear  appears 
at  the  entrance  and  begs  for  shelter.  He  is  almost 
frozen  with  the  cold,  he  says,  and  would  like  to 
warm  himself  a  bit.  The  two  little  girls  are  at 
first  frightened,  but,  encouraged  by  their  mother, 
they  take  heart  and  invite  the  bear  into  the  kitchen. 
Soon  a  cordial  friendship  springs  up  between  Bruin 
and  the  children.  Tliey  brush  the  snow  from  his 
fur,  tease,  and  caress  him  by  turns.  After  this  the 
bear  returns  every  night,  and  finally  turns  out  to  be 
a  beautiful  prince. 

The  Story  of  the  Queen  Bee  tells  about  three 
brothers  who  wander  through  the  world  in  search 
of  adventures.     One  day  they  come  to  an  ant-hill. 


THE  USE  OF  FAIRY  TALES.  75 

The  two  older  brothers  are  about  to  trample  upon 
the  ants  "  just  for  the  fun  of  it."  But  the  youngest 
pleads  with  them,  saying :  "  Let  them  live ;  their  life 
is  as  dear  to  them  as  ours  is  to  us."  Next  they  come 
to  a  pond  in  which  many  ducks  are  swimming  about. 
The  two  older  brothers  are  determined  to  shoot  the 
ducks  "  just  for  the  fun  of  it."  The  youngest  again 
pleads  as  before,  "  Let  them  live,"  etc.  Finally,  he 
saves  a  bee-hive  from  destruction  in  the  same  man- 
ner. Thus  they  journey  on  until  they  come  to  an 
enchanted  castle.  To  break  the  spell,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  find  and  gather  up  a  thousand  pearls  which 
had  fallen  on  the  moss-covered  ground  in  a  cer- 
tain wood.  Five  thousand  ants  come  to  help  the 
youngest  to  find  the  pearls.  The  second  task  im- 
posed is  to  find  a  golden  key  which  had  been 
thrown  into  a  pond  near  the  castle.  The  grateful 
ducks  bring  up  the  key  from  the  bottom.  The 
third  task  is  the  most  diflicult.  In  one  of  the 
interior  chambers  of  the  castle  there  are  three 
marble  images — three  princesses,  namely,  who  had 
been  turned  into  stone.  Before  the  spell  took  eft'ect 
they  had  partaken,  respectively,  of  sugar,  sirup,  and 
honey.  To  restore  them  to  life  it  is  necessary 
to  discover  which  one  had  eaten  the  honey.  The 
Queen  Bee  comes  in  with  all  her  swarm  and 
lights  on  the  lips  of  the  youngest  and  so  solves  the 
problem.  The  enchantment  is  immediately  dis- 
solved. All  these  stories  illustrate  kindness  to  ani- 
mals. 

Among  stories  which  illustrate  the  respect  due  to 


Y6  MORAL   INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

the  feelings  of  servants  may  be  mentioned  tlie  tale  of 
Faithful  John,  who  understood  the  language  of  the 
ravens  and  saved  his  master  from  the  dangers  of  the 
red  horse,  etc.,  a  story  wliich  in  addition  impresses  the 
lesson  that  we  should  confide  in  persons  who  have 
been  found  trustworthy,  even  if  we  do  not  understand 
their  motives.  In  the  popular  tale  of  Cinderella  the 
points  especially  to  be  noted  are  :  The  pious  devotion 
of  Cinderella  to  her  mother's  memory,  and  the  fact 
that  the  poor  kitchen  drudge,  underneath  the  grime 
and  ashes  which  disfigure  her,  possesses  qualities 
which  raise  her  far  above  the  proud  daughters  of 
the  house.  The  lesson  taught  by  this  story  that  we 
should  distinguish  intrinsic  worth  from  the  acci- 
dents of  rank  and  condition,  is  one  which  can  not 
be  impressed  too  early  or  too  deeply. 

Under  the  heading  of  irotherly  and  sisterly  love 
belongs  the  lovely  tale  of  Snow-white.  The  little 
dwarfs  are  to  all  intents  and  purposes  her  brothers. 
They  receive  and  treat  her  as  a  sister,  and  she  returns 
their  affection  in  kind. 

The  story  of  the  Twelve  Brothers,  whom  their 
sister  redeems  by  seven  years  of  silence  at  the  peril 
of  her  own  life,  is  another  instance  of  tenderest  sis- 
terly devotion  combined  -  with  self-control.  This 
story,  however,  needs  to  be  slightly  altered.  In 
place  of  the  cruel  father  (we  must  not  mention  cruel 
fathers)  who  has  got  ready  twelve  coffins  for  his 
sons,  in  order  that  all  the  wealth  of  his  kingdom 
may  descend  to  his  daughter,  let  us  substitute  the 
steward  of  the  palace,  who  hopes  by  slaying  the 


THE  USE  OF  FAIRY  TALES.  77 

eons  and  winning  the  hand  of  the  daughter,  to  be- 
come king  himself. 

Finally  the  story  of  Red  Eiding  Hood  illus- 
trates the  cardinal  virtue  of  childhood — obedience  to 
parents.  Cliildren  must  not  loiter  on  the  way  when 
they  are  sent  on  errands.  Ked  Kiding  Hood  loiters, 
and  hence  all  the  mischief  which  follows.  She  is 
sent  to  bring  wine  and  cake  to  her  grandmother. 
The  example  of  such  attentions  as  this  serves  to  quick- 
en in  children  the  sentiment  of  reverence  for  the 
aged.  Children  learn  reverence  toward  their  parents 
in  part  by  the  reverence  which  these  display  toward 
the  grandparents.  Another  point  is  that  Red  Rid- 
ing Hood,  to  quiet  her  conscience,  w^hen  she  strays 
from  the  straight  path  deceives  herself  as  to  her 
motives.  She  says,  "I  will  also  gather  a  bunch 
of  wild  flowers  to  please  grandmother."  But  her 
real  purpose  is  to  enjoy  the  freedom  of  the  woods, 
and  the  proof  is  that  presently  she  forgets  all  about 
grandmother.  There  is  one  objection  that  has  some- 
times been  urged  against  this  story,  viz.,  the  part 
which  the  wolf  plays  in  it.  But  the  wolf  is  not 
really  treated  as  a  hostile  or  fearful  being.  He 
meets  Red  Riding  Hood  on  the  way,  and  they  chat 
confidentially  together.  He  appears  rather  in  the 
light  of  a  trickster.  But,  it  is  objected,  that  he  de- 
vours the  grandmother  and,  later  on,  Red  Riding 
Hood  herself.  Very  true ;  but  the  curious  fact  is 
that,  when  his  belly  is  cut  open,  the  grandmother 
and  Red  Riding  Hood  come  out  intact.  They  have 
evidently  not  been  injured.     Children   have  very 


78  MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

defective  notions  of  the  human  body,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  such  external  parts  as  hands,  feet,  and 
face.  In  an  examination  recently  conducted  by 
Prof.  G.  Stanley  Hall  in  regard  to  the  contents  of 
childrens'  minds  at  the  time  they  enter  school,  it 
was  found  that  ninety  per  cent  of  those  questioned 
had  no  idea  where  the  heart  is  located,  eighty-one 
per  cent  did  not  know  anything  about  the  lungs, 
ninety  per  cent  could  not  tell  where  their  ribs  are 
situated,  etc.  Of  the  internal  organs  children  have 
no  idea.  Hence  wlien  the  story  says  that  the 
grandmother  is  swallowed  by  the  w^olf,  the  impres- 
sion created  is  that  she  has  been  forced  down  into 
a  sort  of  dark  hole,  and  that  her  situation,  while 
rather  uncomfortable,  no  doubt,  is  not  otherwise 
distressing.  The  ideas  of  torn  and  mangled  flesh 
are  not  suggested.  Hence  the  act  of  devouring 
arouses  no  feeling  of  horror,  and  the  story  of  Ked 
Hiding  Hood,  that  prime  favorite  of  all  young 
children,  may  be  related  without  any  apprehension 
as  to  its  moral  effect. 

Then  there  are  other  stories,  such  as  that  of  the 
man  who  went  abroad  to  learn  the  art  of  shudder- 
ing— an  excellent  example  of  bravery  ;  the  story  of 
the  seven  Suabians — a  persiflage  of  cowardice  ;  the 
story  of  the  Marienkind  which  contains  a  whole- 
some lesson  against  obstinacy,  etc.  I  have  not, 
of  course,  attempted  to  cover  the  whole  ground, 
but  only  to  mention  a  few  examples  sufficient  to 
show  along  what  lines  the  selection  may  be  made. 
The  ethical  interests  peculiar  to  childhood  are  the 


THE   USE   OF   FAIRY  TALES.  79 

heads  under  wliicli  the  whole  material  can  be  classi- 
fied. 

The  value  of  the  fairy  tales  is  that  they  stimulate 
the  imagination ;  that  they  reflect  the  unbroken 
communion  of  human  life  with  the  life  universal,  as 
in  beasts,  fishes,  trees,  flowers,  and  stars  ;  and  that 
incidentally,  but  all  the  more  powerfully  on  that  ac- 
count, they  quicken  the  moral  sentiments. 

Let  us  avail  ourselves  freely  of  the  treasures 
which  are  thus  placed  at  our  disposal.  Let  us  wel- 
come das  Mdrclien  into  our  primary  course  of  moral 
training,  that  with  its  gentle  bands,  woven  of  "  morn- 
ing mist  and  morning  glory,"  it  may  help  to  lead  our 
children  into  the  bright  realms  of  the  ideal. 


VII. 
THE  USE  OF  FABLES. 

The  collection  of  fables  which  figures  under  the 
name  of  ^sop  has  to  a  very  remarkable  degree 
maintained  its  popularity  among  children,  and  many 
of  its  typical  characters  have  been  adopted  into  cur- 
rent literature,  such  as  the  Dog  in  the  Manger,  the 
Wolf  in  Sheep's  Clothing,  King  Log,  and  King 
Stork,  and  others.  Eecent  researches  have  brought 
to  light  the  highly  interesting  fact  that  these  fables 
are  of  Asiatic  origin.  A  collection  of  Indian  and, 
it  is  believed,  Buddhist  fables  and  stories  traveled 
at  at  early  period  into  Persia,  where  it  became 
known  as  the  Pancha-Tantra.  The  Pancha-Tantra 
was  translated  into  Arabic,  and  became  the  source 
of  the  voluminous  Kalilah-wa-Dimnah  literature.  The 
Arabic  tales  in  turn  migrated  into  Europe  at  the 
time  of  the  Crusades  and  were  rendered  into  Greek, 
Hebrew,  and  Latin.  In  this  form  they  became  ac- 
cessible to  the  nations  of  Europe,  were  extensively 
circulated,  and  a  collection  of  them  was  wrongly, 
but  very  naturally,  ascribed  to  a  famous  story-teller 
of  the  ancient  Greeks — i.  e.,  to  ^sop.  The  arguments 
on  which  this  deduction  is  based  may  be  found  in 
Ehys  Davids's  introduction  to  his  English  transla- 

(80) 


THE   USE  OF  FABLES.  81 

tion  of  the  Jataka  Tales.^  This  author  speaks  of 
^sop's  fables  as  a  first  moral  lesson-book  for  our 
children  in  the  West.  We  shall  have  to  consider  in 
how  far  this  description  is  correct — that  is  to  say,  in 
how  far  we  can  use  the  fables  for  moral  purposes. 
The  point  to  be  kept  in  mind  is  their  Asiatic  origin, 
as  this  will  at  once  help  us  to  separate  the  fables 
which  we  can  use  from  those  which  must  be  reject- 
ed. A  discrimination  of  this  sort  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary. I  am  of  the  opinion  that  it  is  a  serious  mis- 
take to  place  the  whole  collection  as  it  stands  in  the 
hands  of  children. 

To  decide  this  question  we  must  study  the  milieu 
in  w^hich  the  fables  arose,  the  spirit  which  they 
breathe,  the  con(iitions  which  they  reflect.  The 
conditions  they  reflect  are  those  of  an  Oriental  des- 
potism. They  depict  a  state  of  society  in  which  the 
people  are  cruelly  oppressed  by  tyrannical  rulers, 
and  the  weak  are  helpless  in  the  hands  of  the  strong. 
The  spirit  which  they  breathe  is,  on  the  whole,  one 
of  patient  and  rather  hopeless  submission.  Tlie 
effect  upon  the  reader  as  soon  as  he  has  caught  this 
clew,  this  Leitmotiv  J  which  occurs  in  a  hundred  vari- 
ations, is  very  saddening.  I  must  substantiate  this 
cardinal  point  by  a  somewhat  detailed  analysis. 
Let  us  take  first  the  fable  of  the  Kite  and  the 
Pigeons.  A  kite  had  been  sailing  in  the  air  for 
many  days  near  a  pigeon-house  with  the  intention 

*  Buddhist  Birth  Stories ;  or  Jataka  Tales,  translated  by  T. 
W.  Rhys  Davids. 


82         MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

of  seizing  tlie  pigeons ;  at  last  he  had  recourse  to 
stratagem.  He  expressed  his  deep  concern  at  their 
unjust  and  unreasonable  suspicions  of  himself,  as  if 
he  intended  to  do  them  an  injury.  He  declared 
that,  on  the  contrary,  he  had  nothing  more  at  heart 
than  the  defense  of  tlieir  ancient  rights  and  liber- 
ties, and  ended  by  proposing  that  they  should  accept 
him  as  tlieir  protector,  their  king.  The  poor,  simple 
pigeons  consented.  The  kite  took  the  coronation 
oath  in  a  very  solemn  manner.  But  much  time  had 
not  elapsed  before  the  good  kite  declared  it  to  be  a 
part  of  the  king's  prerogative  to  devour  a  pigeon  now 
and  then,  and  the  various  members  of  his  family 
adhered  to  the  same  view  of  royal  privilege.  The 
miserable  pigeons  exclaimed  :  "  Ah,  we  deserve  no 
better.     Why  did  we  let  him  in  !  " 

The  fable  of  the  Wolf  in  Sheep's  Clothing  con- 
veys essentially  the  same  idea.  The  fable  of  the 
Lion  and  the  Deer  illustrates  the  exorbitant  exactions 
practiced  by  despots.  A  fat  deer  was  divided  into 
four  parts.  His  majesty  the  lion  proposed  that 
they  be  suitably  apportioned.  The  first  part  he 
claimed  for  himself  on  account  of  his  true  hereditary 
descent  from  the  royal  family  of  Lion ;  the  second 
he  considered  properly  his  own  because  he  had 
headed  the  hunt ;  the  third  he  took  in  virtue  of  his 
prerogative ;  and  finally  he  assumed  a  menacing  atti- 
tude, and  dared  any  one  to  dispute  his  right  to  the 
fourth  part  also. 

In  the  fable  of  the  Sick  Lion  and  the  Fox,  the  fox 
says :  "  I  see  the  footprints  of  beasts  who  have  gone 


THE  USE  OF  FABLES.  83 

into  the  cave,  but  of  none  that  have  come  out." 
The  fable  of  the  Cat  and  the  Mice  expresses  the 
same  thought,  namely,  that  it  is  necessary  to  be  ever 
on  one's  guard  against  the  mighty  oppressors  even 
when  their  power  seems  for  the  time  to  have  de- 
serted them.  The  cat  pretends  to  be  dead,  hoping 
by  this  means  to  entice  the  mice  within  her  reach. 
A  cunning  old  mouse  peeps  over  the  edge  of  the 
shelf,  and  says  :  "  Aha,  my  good  friend,  are  you 
there  ?  I  would  not  trust  myself  with  you  though 
your  skin  were  stuffed  with  straw." 

The  fable  of  King  Log  and  King  Stork  shows 
what  a  poor  choice  the  people  have  in  the  matter  of 
their  kings.  First  they  have  a  fool  for  their  king, 
a  mere  log,  and  they  are  discontented.  Then  Stork 
ascends  the  throne,  and  he  devours  them.  It  would 
have  been  better  if  they  had  put  up  with  the  fool. 
The  injustice  of  despotic  rulers  is  exemplified  in 
the  fable  of  the  Kite  and  the  Wolf.  The  kite  and 
the  wolf  are  seated  in  judgment.  The  dog  comes 
before  them  to  sue  the  sheep  for  debt.  Kite  and 
wolf,  without  waiting  for  the  evidence,  give  sen- 
tence for  the  plaintiff,  who  immediately  tears  the 
poor  sheep  into  pieces  and  divides  the  spoil  with 
the  judges.  The  sort  of  thanks  which  the  people 
get  when  they  are  foolish  enough  to  come  to  the 
assistance  of  their  masters,  is  illustrated  by  the  con- 
duct of  the  wolf  toward  the  crane.  The  wolf  hap- 
pened to  have  a  bone  sticking  in  his  throat,  and, 
howling  with  pain,  promised  a  reward  to  any  one 
who  should  relieve  him.     At  last  the  crane  ventured 


84  MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

liis  long  neck  into  the  wolf's  throat  and  plucked  out 
the  bone.  But  when  he  asked  for  his  reward,  the 
wolf  glared  savagely  upon  him,  and  said  :  "  Is  it  not 
enough  that  I  refrained  from  biting  off  your  head  ? " 
How  dangerous  it  is  to  come  at  all  into  close  con-^ 
tact  with  the  mighty,  is  shown  in  the  fable  of  the 
Earthen  and  the  Brazen  Pot.  The  brazen  pot  offers 
to  protect  the  earthen  one  as  they  float  down  stream. 
"  Oh,"  replies  the  latter,  "  keep  as  far  off  as  ever 
you  can,  if  you  please  ;  for,  whether  the  stream 
dashes  you  against  me  or  me  against  you,  I  am  sure 
to  be  the  sufferer." 

The  fables  which  we  have  considered  have  for 
their  theme  the  character  of  the  strong  as  exhib- 
ited in  their  dealings  wdth  the  weak.  A  second 
group  is  intended  to  recommend  a  certain  policy  to 
be  pursued  by  the  weak  in  self-protection.  This 
policy  consists  either  in  pacifying  the  strong  by 
giving  up  to  them  voluntarily  what  they  want,  or  in 
flight,  or,  if  that  be  impossible,  in  uncomplaining 
submission.  The  first  expedient  is  recommended  in 
the  fable  of  the  Beaver.  A  beaver  who  was  being 
hard  pressed  by  a  hunter  and  knew  not  how  to  es- 
cape, suddenly,  with  a  great  effort,  bit  off  the  part 
which  the  hunter  desired,  and,  throwing  it  toward 
him,  by  this  means  escaped  with  his  life.  The  ex- 
pedient of  flight  is  recommended  in  the  fable  of 
Eeynard  and  the  Cat.  Eeynard  and  the  cat  one  day 
were  talking  politics  in  the  forest.  The  fox  boasted 
that  though  things  might  turn  out  never  so  badly,  he 
had  still  a  thousand  tricks  to  play  before  they  should 


THE  USE   OF  FABLES.  85 

catch  him.  The  cat  said :  "  I  have  but  one  trick,  and 
if  that  does  not  succeed  1  am  undone."  Presently 
a  pack  of  hounds  came  upon  them  full  cry.  The 
cat  ran  up  a  tree  and  hid  herself  among  the  top 
branches.  The  fox,  who  had  not  been  able  to  get 
out  of  sight,  was  overtaken  despite  his  thousand 
tricks  and  torn  to  pieces  by  the  hounds.  The  fable 
of  the  Oak  and  the  Eeed  teaches  the  policy  of  utter, 
uncomplaining  su])mission.  The  oak  refuses  to 
bend,  and  is  broken.  The  supple  reed  yields  to  the 
blast,  and  is  safe.  Is  it  not  a  little  astonishing  that 
this  fable  should  so  often  be  related  to  children  as 
if  it  contained  a.  moral  which  they  ought  to  take 
to  heart?  To  make  it  apply  at  all,  it  is  usually 
twisted  from  its  proper  signification  and  exj)lained 
as  meaning  that  one  should  not  be  fool-hardy,  not  at- 
tempt to  struggle  against  overwhelming  odds.  But 
this  is  not  the  true  interpretation.  The  oak  is  by 
nature  strong  and  firm,  while  it  is  the  nature  of  tlie 
reed  to  bend  to  every  wind.  The  fable  springs  out 
of  the  experience  of  a  people  who  have  found  re- 
sistance against  oppression  useless.  And  this  sort 
of  teaching  we  can  not,  of  course,  wish  to  give  to 
our  children.  I  should  certainly  prefer  that  a  child 
of  mine  should  take  the  oak,  and  not  the  reed,  for  his 
pattern.  The  same  spirit  is  again  inculcated  in  the 
fable  of  the  Wanton  Calf.  The  wanton  calf  sneers 
at  the  poor  ox  who  all  day  long  bears  the  heavy 
yoke  patiently  upon  his  neck.  But  in  the  evening 
it  turns  out  that  the  ox  is  unyoked,  while  the  calf  is 
butchered.    The  choice  seems  to  lie  between  subservi- 


86  MORAL   INSTRUCTION  OF   CHILDREN. 

ency  and  destruction.  The  fable  of  the  Old  "Woman 
and  her  Maids  suggests  the  same  conclusion,  with 
the  warning  added  that  it  is  useless  to  rise  against 
the  agents  of  tyranny  so  long  as  the  tyrants  them- 
selves can  not  be  overthrown.  The  cock  in  the, 
fable  represents  the  agents  of  oppression.  The 
killing  of  the  cock  serves  only  to  bring  the  mistress 
herself  on  the  scene,  and  the  lot  of  the  servants  be- 
comes in  consequence  very  much  harder  than  it  had 
been  before. 

We  have  now  considered  two  groups  of  fables : 
those  which  depict  the  character  of  the  mighty, 
and  those  which  treat  of  the  proper  policy  of  the 
weak.  The  subject  of  the  third  group  is,  the  con- 
solations of  the  weak.  These  are,  first,  that  even 
tyrannical  masters  are  to  a  certain  extent  dependent 
upon  their  inferiors,  and  can  be  punished  if  they  go 
too  far ;  secondly,  that  the  mighty  occasionally  come 
to  grief  in  consequence  of  dissensions  among  them- 
selves ;  thirdly,  that  fortune  is  fickle.  A  lion  is 
caught  in  the  toils,  and  would  perish  did  not  a  little 
mouse  come  to  his  aid  by  gnawing  asunder  the 
knots  and  fastenings.  The  bear  robs  the  bees  of 
their  honey,  but  is  punished  and  rendered  almost 
desperate  by  their  stings.  An  eagle  carries  off  the 
cub  of  a  fox ;  but  the  fox,  snatching  a  fire-brand, 
threatens  to  set  the  eagle's  nest  on  fire,  and  thus 
forces  him  to  restore  her  young  one.  This  is  evi- 
dently a  fable  of  insurrection.  The  fable  of  the 
Viper  and  the  File  shows  that  it  is  not  safe  to  attack 
the  wrong  person — in  other  words,  that  tyrants  some- 


THE   USE   OF  FABLES.  87 

times  come  to  grief  by  singling  out  for  persecution 
some  one  who  is  strong  enough  to  resist  them  though 
they  Httle  suspect  it.     The  fable  of  the  four  bulls 
shows  the  effect  of  dissensions  among  the  mighty. 
Four  bulls  had  entered  into  a  close  alliance,  and  agreed 
to  keep  always  near  one  another.     A  lion  fomented 
jealousies  among  them.     The  bulls  grew  distrustful 
of  one  another,  and  at  last  parted  company.     The 
lion  had  now  obtained  his  end,  and  seized  and  de- 
voured them  singly.    The  fickleness  of  fortune  is  the 
theme  of  the  fable  of  the  Horse  and  the  Ass.     The 
horse,  richly  caparisoned  and  champing  his  foaming 
bridle,  insults  an  ass  who  moves  along  under  a  heavy 
load.     Soon  after  the  horse  is  wounded,  and,  being 
unfit  for  military  service,  is  sold  to  a  carrier.     The 
ass  now  taunts  the  proud   animal  with  his  fallen 
estate.     The  horse  in  this  fable  is  the  type  of  many 
an  Eastern  vizier,  who  has  basked  for  a  time  in  the 
sunshine  of  ^  despot's  favor  only  to  be  suddenly  and 
ignominiously  degraded.    The  ass  in  the  fable  repre- 
sents the  people.     There  remains  a  fourth  group  of 
fables,  which   satirize   certain   mean   or  ridiculous 
types  of  characters,  such  as  are  apt  to  appear  in 
social  conditions  of  the  kind  we  have  described. 
Especially  do  the  fables  make  a  target  of  the  folly 
of  those  who  affect  the  manners  of  the  aristocratic 
class,  or  who  try  to  crowd  in  where  they  are  not 
wanted,  or   who   boast  of   their  high   connections. 
The  frog  puffs  himself  up  so  that  he  may  seem  as 
large  as  the  ox,  until  he  bursts.     The  mouse  aspires 
to  marry  the  young  lioness,  and  is  in  fact  w^ell  re- 


88         MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

ceived;  but  the  young  lady  inadvertently  places 
her  foot  on  her  suitor  and  crushes  hiin.  The  jack- 
daw picks  up  feathers  which  have  fallen  from  the 
peacocks,  sticks  them  among  his  own,  and  introduces 
himself  into  the  asseml)ly  of  those  proud  birds. 
They  find  him  out,  strip  him  of  his  plumes,  and 
with  their  sharp  bills  punish  him  as  he  deserves.  A 
fly  boasts  that  he  frequents  the  most  distinguished 
company,  and  that  he  is  on  familiar  terms  with  the 
king,  the  priests,  and  the  nobility.  Many  a  time, 
he  says,  he  has  entered  the  royal  chamber,  has  sat 
upon  the  altar,  and  has  even  enjoyed  the  privilege 
of  kissing  the  lips  of  the  most  beautiful  maids  of 
honor.  "  Yes,"  replies  an  ant,  "  but  in  what  capaci- 
ty are  you  admitted  among  all  these  great  people  ? 
One  and  all  regard  you  as  a  nuisance,  and  the  sooner 
they  can  get  rid  of  you  the  better  they  are  pleased." 
Most  of  the  fables  which  thus  far  have  been 
mentioned  we  can  not  use.  The  discovery  of  their 
Asiatic  origin  sheds  a  new,  keen  light  upon  their 
meaning.  They  breathe,  in  many  cases,  a  spirit  of 
fear,  of  abject  subserviency,  of  hopeless  pessimism. 
Can  we  desire  to  inoculate  the  young  with  this  spirit  ? 
The  question  may  be  asked  why  fables  are  so  popular 
with  boys.  I  should  say.  Because  school-boy  society 
reproduces  in  miniature  to  a  certain  extent  the  social 
conditions  which  are  reflected  in  the  fables.  Among 
unregenerate  school-boys  there  often  exists  a  kind  of 
despotism,  not  the  less  degrading  because  petty.  The 
strong  are  pitted  against  the  weak — witness  the  fag- 
ging system  in  the  English  schools — and  their  mutual 


THE  USE   OF  FABLES.  89 

antagonism  produces  in  both  the  characteristic  vices 
which  we  have  noted  above.  The  psychological  study 
of  school-boy  society  has  been  only  begun,  but  even 
what  lies  on  the  surface  will,  I  think,  bear  out  this 
remark.  Now  it  has  come  to  be  one  of  the  common- 
places of  educational  literature,  that  the  individual 
of  to-day  must  pass  through  the  same  stages  of  evolu- 
tion as  the  human  race  as  a  whole.  But  it  should 
not  be  forgotten  that  the  advance  of  civilization  de- 
pends on  two  conditions :  first,  that  the  course  of 
evolution  be  accelerated,  that  the  time  allowed  to  the 
successive  stages  be  shortened;  and,  secondly,  that 
the  unworthy  and  degrading  elements  which  entered 
into  the  process  of  evolution  in  the  past,  and  at  the 
time  were  inseparable  from  it,  be  now  eliminated. 
Thus  the  fairy-tales  which  correspond  to  the  mytli- 
making  epoch  in  human  history  must  be  purged  of 
the  dross  of  superstition  which  still  adheres  to  them, 
and  the  fables  which  correspond  to  the  age  of  primi- 
tive despotisms  must  be  cleansed  of  the  immoral 
elements  they  still  embody. 

The  fables  which  are  fit  for  use  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes:  those  which  give  illustrations  of 
evil,^  the  effect  of  which  on  the  young  should  be 
to  arouse  disapprobation,  and  those  which  present 
types  of  virtue.  The  following  is  a  list  of  some  of 
the  prinicpal  ones  in  each  category  : 

*  1  remarked  above  that  fables  should  be  excluded  if  the 
moral  they  inculcate  is  bad,  not  if  they  depict  what  is  bad.  In 
the  latter  case  they  often  may  serve  a  useful  purpose. 


90  MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

A7i  Instance  of  Seljisliness.  The  porcupine  hav- 
ing begged  for  hospitality  and  having  been  invited 
into  a  nest  of  snakes,  inconveniences  the  inmates  and 
finally  crowds  them  out.  When  they  remonstrate, 
he  says,  "  Let  those  quit  the  place  that  do  not  like 
it." 

Injustice,  The  fable  of  the  Kite  and  the  Wolf, 
mentioned  above. 

Imjprovidence.  The  fable  of  the  Ant  and  the 
Grasshopper ;  also  the  fable  entitled  One  Swallow 
does  not  make  Summer,  and  the  fable  of  tlie  Man 
who  Killed  the  Goose  that  laid  the  Golden  Eggs. 

Ingratititde.  The  fable  of  the  snake  which  bit 
the  countryman  who  had  warmed  it  in  his  breast. 

Cowardice.  Tlie  fable  of  the  Stag  and  the 
Fawn,  and  of  the  Hares  in  the  Storm. 

Vanity,  The  fables  of  the  Peacock  and  the 
Crane,  and  of  the  Crow  who  lost  his  Cheese  by  lis- 
tening to  the  flattery  of  the  fox. 

Contemptuous  Self-confidence.  The  Hare  and 
the  Tortoise. 

The  Evil  Influence  of  Bad  Company.  The 
Husbandman  and  the  Stork. 

Cruelty  to  Animals,  The  Fowler  and  the  Ring- 
dove ;  the  Hawk  and  the  Pigeons. 

Greediness,     The  Dog  and  the  Shadow. 

Lying,  The  fable  of  the  boy  who  cried 
"Wolf!" 

Bragging,  The  fable  of  the  Ass  in  the  Lion's 
Skin. 

Deceit,     The  fable  of  the  Fox  without  a  Tail. 


THE  USE  OF  FABLES.  91 

Disingenuoiisness.  The  fable  of  tlie  Sour 
Grapes. 

A  Discontented  Spirit,  The  fable  of  the  Pea- 
cock's Complaint. 

Equal  Graces  are  not  given  to  all.  The  fable  of 
the  Ass  who  leaped  into  his  Master's  Lap. 

Borrowed  Plumes.  The  fable  of  the  Jackdaw 
and  the  Peacocks,  mentioned  above. 

Malice,  The  fable  of  the  Dog  in  the  Manger, 
who  would  not  eat,  neither  let  others  eat. 

Breaking  Faith,  The  fable  of  the  Traveler  and 
the  Bear. 

To  Fan  Animosity  is  even  Worse  than  to  Quar- 
rel,    The  fable  of  the  Trumpeter. 

The  valu.e  of  these  fables,  as  has  been  said,  con- 
sists in  the  reaction  which  they  call  forth  in  the 
minds  of  the  pupils.  Sometimes  this  reaction  finds 
expression  in  the  fable  itself ;  sometimes  the  particu- 
lar vice  is  merely  depicted  in  its  nakedness,  and  it 
becomes  the  business  of  the  teacher  distinctly  to 
evoke  the  feeling  of  disapprobation,  and  to  have  it 
expressly  slated  in  words.  The  words  tend  to  fix 
the  feeling.  Often,  when  a  child  has  committed 
some  fault,  it  is  useful  to  refer  by  name  to  the  fable 
that  fits  it.  As,  when  a  boy  has  made  room  in  his 
seat  for  another,  and  the  other  crowds  him  out,  the 
mere  mention  of  the  fable  of  the  Porcupine  is  a 
telling  rebuke ;  or  the  fable  of  the  Hawk  and  the 
Pigeons  may  be  called  to  mind  when  a  boy  has  been 
guilty  of  mean  excuses.  On  the  same  principle  that 
angry  children  are  sometimes  taken  before  a  mirror 


92  MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF   CHILDREN. 

to  show  them  how  iiglj  they  look.  The  fable  is  a 
kind  of  mirror  for  the  vices  of  the  young. 

Of  the  fables  that  illustrate  virtuous  conduct,  I 
mention  that  of  Hercules  and  the  Cart-driver,  which 
teaches  self-reliance.  Hercules  helps  the  driver  as 
soon  as  the  latter  lias  put  his  own  shoulders  to  the 
w4ieel.  Also  the  fable  of  the  Lark.  So  long  as  the 
farmer  depends  on  his  neighbors,  or  his  kinsmen, 
the  lark  is  not  afraid;  but  when  he  proposes  to 
buckle  to  himself,  she  advises  her  young  that  it  is 
time  to  seek  another  field.  The  fable  of  the  Wind 
and  the  Sun  shows  that  kindness  succeeds  where 
rough  treatment  would  fail.  The  fable  of  the  Bun- 
dle of  Sticks  exemplifies  the  value  of  harmony. 
The  fable  of  the  Wolf,  whom  the  dog  tries  to  in- 
duce to  enter  civilization,  expresses  the  sentiment 
that  lean  liberty  is  to  be  preferred  to  pampered 
servitude.  The  fable  of  the  Old  Hound  teaches 
regard  for  old  servants.  Finally,  the  fable  of  the 
Horse  and  the  Loaded  Ass,  and  of  the  Dove  and  the 
Ant,  show  that  kindness  pays  on  selfish  princi- 
ples. The  horse  refuses  to  share  the  ass's  burden ; 
the  ass  falls  dead  under  his  load ;  in  consequence, 
the  horse  has  to  bear  the  whole  of  it.  On  the  other 
hand  the  dove  rescues  the  ant  from  drowning,  and 
the  ant  in  turn  saves  the  dove  from  the  fowler's  net. 

The  last  remark  throws  light  on  the  point  of 
view  from  which  the  fables  contemplate  good  and 
evil.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  a  really  moral  spirit  is 
wanting  in  tliem ;  the  moral  motives  are  not  ap- 
pealed to.     The  appeal  throughout  is  to  the  bare 


THE   USE   OF   FABLES.  93 

motive  of  self-interest.  Do  not  lie,  because  you 
will  be  found  out,  and  will  be  left  in  the  lurch  when 
you  depend  for  help  on  the  confidence  of  others. 
Do  not  indulge  in  vanity,  because  you  wdll  make 
yourself  ridiculous.  Do  not  try  to  appear  like  a 
lion  when  you  can  not  sujDport  the  character,  be- 
cause people  will  find  out  that  you  are  only  an  ass. 
Do  not  act  ungratefully,  because  you  will  be  thrust 
out  of  doors.  Even  when  good  conduct  is  incul- 
cated, it  is  on  the  ground  that  it  pays.  Be  self-re- 
liant, because  if  you  help  yourself  others  will  help 
you.  Be  kind,  because  by  gentle  means  you  can 
gain  your  purpose  better  than  by  harshness.  Agree 
with  your  neighbors,  because  you  can  then,  like  the 
bundle  of  sticks,  resist  aggression  from'  without. 
That  lying  is  wrong  on  principle ;  that  greediness  is 
shameful,  whether  you  lose  your  cheese  or  not ;  that 
kindness  is  blessed,  even  when  it  does  not  bring  a 
material  reward ;  that  it  is  lovely  for  neighbors  to 
dwell  together  in  peace,  is  nowhere  indicated.  The 
beauty  and  the  holiness  of  right  conduct  lie  utterly 
beyond  the  horizon  of  the  fable.  Nevertheless,  as 
we  have  seen  when  speaking  of  the  efficient  motives 
of  conduct,  self-interest  as  a  motive  should  not  be  un- 
derrated, but  should  be  allowed,  the  influence  which 
belongs  to  it  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  moral  motive. 
It  is  well,  it  is  necessary,  for  children  to  learn  that 
lying,  besides  being  in  itself  disgraceful,  does  also 
entail  penalties  of  a  palpable  sort ;  that  vanity  and 
self-conceit,  besides  being  immoral,  are  also  pun- 
ished by  the  contempt  of  one's  fellows ;  that  those 


94         MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

who  are  unkind,  as  the  horse  was  to  the  ass,  may 
have  to  bear  the  ass's  burden.  The  checks  and 
curbs  supphed  by  such  considerations  as  these  serve 
the  purpose  of  strengthening  the  weak  conscience 
of  the  young,  and  are  not  to  be  dispensed  with,  pro- 
vided always  they  are  treated  not  as  substitutes  for 
but  as  auxiharies  to  the  moral  motives,  properly 
speaking. 

As  to  the  place  in  the  primary  course  which  I 
have  assigned  to  the  fables,  I  have  the  following  re- 
mark to  offer  :  In  speaking  of  fairy  tales,  it  was 
stated  that  the  moral  element  should  be  touched  on 
incidentally,  and  that  it  should  not  be  separated 
from  the  other,  the  naturalistic  elements.  The 
pedagogitjal  reason  which  leads  me  to  assign  to  the 
fables  the  second  place  in  the  course,  is  that  each 
fable  deals  exclusively  with  one  moral  quality, 
which  is  thus  isolated  and  held  up  to  be  contem- 
plated. In  the  stories  which  will  occupy  the  third 
place  a  number  of  moral  qualities  are  presented  in 
combination.  We  have,  therefore,  what  seems  to 
be  a  logical  and  progressive  order — first,  fairy  tales 
in  which  the  moral  is  still  blended  with  other  ele- 
ments ;  secondly,  a  single  moral  quality  set  off  by 
itself  ;  then,  a  combination  of  such  qualities. 

The  peculiar  value  of  the  fables  is  that  they  are 
instantaneous  photograplis,  which  reproduce,  as  it 
were,  in  a  single  flash  of  light,  some"  one  aspect  of 
human  nature,  and  which,  excluding  everything 
else,  permit  the  entire  attention  to  be  fixed  on  that 
one. 


THE   USE  OF  FABLES.  95 

.  As  to  the  method  of  handhiig  them,  I  should  say 
to  the  teacher :  Relate  the  fable  ;  let  the  pupil  repeat 
it  in  his  own  words,  making  sure  that  the  essential 
points  are  stated  correctly.  By  means  of  questions 
elicit  a  clean-cut  expression  of  the  point  which  the 
fable  illustrates ;  then  ask  the  pupil  to  give  out  of 
his  experience  other  instances  illustrating  the  same 
point.  This  is  precisely  the  method  pursued  in  the 
so-called  primary  object  lessons.  The  child,  for  in- 
stance, having  been  shown  a  red  ball,  is  asked  to 
state  the  color  of  the  ball,  and  then  to  name  other 
objects  of  the  same  color ;  or  to  give  the  shape  of 
the  ball,  and  then  to  name  other  objects  having  the 
same  shape.  In  like  manner,  when  the  pupil  has 
heard  the  fable  of  the  Fox  and  the  Wolf,  and  has 
gathered  from  it  that  compassion  when  expressed 
merely  in  words  is  useless,  and  that  it  must  lead  to 
deeds  to  be  really  praiseworthy,  it  will  be  easy  for 
him  out  of  his  own  experience  to  multiply  instances 
which  illustrate  the  same  truth.  The  search  for  in- 
stances makes  the  point  of  the  fable  clearer,  while 
the  expression  of  the  thought  in  precise  language, 
on  which  the  teacher  should  always  insist,  tends  to 
drive  it  home.  It  will  be  our  aim  in  the  present 
course  of  lectures  to  apply  the  methods  of  object 
teaching,  now  generally  adopted  in  other  branches, 
to  the  earliest  moral  instruction  of  children — an  un- 
dertaking, of  course,  not  without  diiSculties. 


VIII. 
SUPPLEMENTARY  REMAEKS    ON    FABLES. 

Apart  from  the  collection  which  figures  under 
the  name  of  ^sop,  there  are  other  fables,  notably 
the  so-called  Jataka  tales,  which  deserve  attention. 
The  Jataka  tales  contain  deep  truths,  and  are  calcu- 
lated to  impress  lessons  of  great  moral  beauty.  The 
tale  of  the  Merchant  of  Seri,  who  gave  up  all  that  he 
had  in  exchange  for  a  golden  dish,  embodies  much 
the  same  idea  as  the  parable  of  the  Priceless  Pearl, 
in  the  New  Testament.  The  tale  of  the  Measures  of 
Eice  illustrates  the  importance  of  a  true  estimate  of 
values.  The  tale  of  the  Banyan  Deer,  which  offered 
its  life  to  save  a  roe  and  her  young,  illustrates 
self-sacrifice  of  the  noblest  sort.  The  Kulavaka- 
Jataka  contains  the  thought  that  a  forgiving  spirit 
toward  one's  enemies  disarms  even  the  evil-minded. 
The  tale  of  the  Partridge,  the  Monkey,  and  the  Ele- 
phant teaches  that  the  best  seats  belong  not  to  the 
nobles  or  the  priests,  to  the  rich  or  the  learned,  not 
even  to  the  most  pious,  but  that  reverence  and  serv- 
ice and  respect  and  civility  are  to  be  paid  according 
to  age,  and  for  the  aged  the  best  seat,  the  best  water, 
the  best  rice,  are  to  be  reserved.  The  tale  of  Nanda, 
or  the  Buried  Gold,  is  a  rebuke  to  that  base  inso- 
lence which  vulgar  natures  often  exhibit  when  they 

(96) 


SUPPLEMENTARY  REMARKS  ON  FABLES.   97 

possess  a  temporary  advantage.  The  tale  of  the 
Sandy  Road  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  collection. 
It  pictures  to  us  a  caravan  wandering  through  the 
desert  under  the  starlight.  The  guide,  whose  duty 
it  was  to  pilot  them  through  this  sea  of  sand,  has, 
it  appears,  fallen  asleep  at  his  post  from  excessive 
weariness,  and  at  dawn  the  travelers  discover  that 
they  have  gone  astray,  and  that  far  and  wide  no  wa- 
ter is  in  sight  wherewith  to  quench  their  burning 
thirst.  At  this  moment,  however,  the  leader  espies 
a  small  tuft  of  grass  on  the  face  of  the  desert,  and, 
reasoning  that  water  must  be  flowing  somewhere 
underneath,  inspires  his  exhausted  followers  to 
new  exertions.  A  hole  sixty  feet  deep  is  dug  un- 
der his  direction,  but  at  length  they  come  upon 
hard  rock,  and  can  dig  no  farther.  But  even  then 
he  does  not  yield  to  despair.  Leaping  down,  he  ap- 
plies his  ear  to  the  rock.  Surely,  it  is  water  'that 
he  hears  gurgling  underneath !  One  more  effort, 
he  cries,  and  we  are  saved  !  But  of  all  his  follow- 
ers one  only  had  strength  or  courage  enough  left 
to  obey.  This  one  strikes  a  heavy  blow,  the  rock  is 
split  open,  and  lo !  the  living  water  gushes  upward 
in  a  flood.  The  lesson  is  that  of  perseverance  and 
presence  of  mind  in  desperate  circumstances.  The 
tale  entitled  Holding  to  the  Truth  narrates  the  sad 
fate  of  a  merchant  who  suffered  himself  to  be  de- 
ceived by  a  mirage  into  the  belief  that  water  was 
near,  and  emptied  the  jars  which  he  carried  with 
him  in  order  to  reach  the  pleasant  land  the  sooner. 

The  Jataka  entitled  On  True  Divinity  contains  a 

7  ^         *^ 


98  MORAL   INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

very  beautiful  story  about  three  brothers,  the  Sun 
prince,  the  Moon  prince,  and  the  future  Buddha  or 
Bodisat.  The  king,  their  father,  expelled  the  Moon 
prince  and  the  future  Buddha  in  order  to  secure  the 
succession  to  the  Sun  prince  alone.  But  the  Sun 
prince  could  not  bear  to  be  separated  from  his 
brothers,  and  secretly  followed  them  into  exile. 
They  journeyed  together  until  they  came  to  a  cer- 
tain lake.  This  lake  was  inhabited  by  an  evil  spirit, 
to  whom  power  had  been  given  to  destroy  all  who 
entered  his  territory  unless  they  could  redeem  their 
lives  by  answering  the  question.  What  is  truly  di- 
vine ?  "  So  the  Sun  prince  was  asked  first,  and  he 
answered,  "  The  sim  and  the  moon  and  the  gods 
are  divine.  But  that  not  being  the  correct  answer, 
the  evil  spirit  seized  and  imprisoned  'him  in  his 
cave.  Then  the  Moon  prince  was  asked,  and  he 
answered,  "The  far-spreading  sky  is  called  divine." 
But  he,  too,  was  carried  away  to  the  same  place  to 
be  destroyed.  Then  the  future  Buddha  was  asked, 
and  he  answered  :  "  Give  ear,  then,  attentively,  and 
hear  what  divine  nature  is ;  and  he  uttered  the 
words — 

"  The  pure  in  heart  who  fear  to  sin, 
The  good,  kindly  in  word  and  deed. 
These  are  the  beings  in  the  world 
Whose  nature  should  be  called  divine." 

And  when  the  evil  spirit  heard  these  words,  be 
bowed,  and  said  :  "  I  will  give  up  to  you  one  of  your 
brothers."  Then  the  future  Buddha  said,  "  Give  me 
the  life  of  my  brother,  the  Sun  prince,  for  it  is  on  his 


SUPPLEMENTARY  REMARKS  ON  FABLES.     99 

account  that  we  have  been  driven  away  from  our 
home  and  thrust  into  exile."  The  evil  spirit  was 
overcome  by  this  act  of  generosity,  and  said,  "  Yerily, 
O  teacher,  thou  not  only  knowest  what  is  divine, 
but  hast  acted  divinely."  And  he  gave  him  the  life 
of  both  his  brothers,  the  Sun  prince  as  well  as  the 
Moon  prince. 

I  could  not  resist  the  temptation  of  relating 
a  few  of  these  tales.  They  are,  as  every  one  must 
admit,  nobly  conceived,  lofty  in  meaning,  and  many 
a  helpful  sermon  might  be  preached  from  them  as 
texts.  But,  of  course,  not  all  are  fit  to  be  used  in 
a  primary  course.  Some  of  them  are,  some  are 
not.  The  teacher  will  have  no  difficulty  in  making 
the  right  selection.  To  the  former  class  belongs 
also  No.  28  of  the  collection,*  which  is  excellently 
adapted  to  impress  the  lesson  of  kindness  to  ani- 
mals. Long  ago  the  Buddha  came  to  life  in  the 
shape  of  a  powerful  bull.  His  master,  a  Brahman, 
asserted  that  this  bull  of  his  could  move  a  hundred 
loaded  carts  ranged  in  a  row  and  bound  together. 
Being  challenged  to  prove  his  assertion,  he  bathed 
the  bull,  gave  him  scented  rice,  hung  a  garland  of 
flowers  around  his  neck,  and  yoked  him  to  the  first 
cart.  Then  he  raised  his  whip  and  called  out,  "  Gee 
up,  you  brute.  Drag  them  along,  you  wretch !  "  The 
bull  said  to  himself,  "  He  calls  me  wretch  ;  I  am  no 
wretch."  And  keeping  his  forelegs  as  firm  as  steel, 
he  stood  perfectly  still.    Thereupon  the  Brahman,  his 

*  Buddhist  Birth  Stories ;  or  Jataka  Tales. 


100       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

master,  was  compelled  to  pay  a  forfeit  of  a  thou- 
sand pieces  of  gold  because  he  had  not  made  good 
his  boast.  After  a  while  the  bull  said  to  the  Brah- 
man, wiio  seemed  very  much  dispirited  :  "  Brahman, 
I  have  lived  a  long  time  in  your  house.  Have  I  ever 
broken  any  pots,  or  have  I  rubbed  against  the  walls, 
or  have  I  made  the  walks  around  the  premises  un- 
clean ? "  "  Never,  my  dear,"  said  the  Brahman. 
^'  Then  why  did  you  call  me  wretch  ?  But  if  you 
will  never  call  me  wretch  again,  you  shall  have  two 
thousand  pieces  for  the  one  thousand  you  have 
lost."  The  Brahman,  hearing  this,  called  his  neigh- 
bors together,  set  up  one  hundred  loaded  carts  as 
before,  then  seated  himself  on  the  pole,  stroked 
the  bull  on  the  back,  and  called  out,  "  Gee  up,  my 
beauty  !  Drag  them  along,  my  beauty  !  "  And  the 
bull,  with  a  mighty  effort,  dragged  along  the  whole 
hundred  carts,  heavily  loaded  though  they  were. 
The  bystanders  were  greatly  astonished,  and  the 
Brahman  received  two  thousand  pieces  on  account 
of  the  wonderful  feat  performed  by  the  bull. 

The  30th  Jataka  corresponds  to  the  fable  of  the 
Ox  and  the  Calf  in  the  -^sop  collection.  The  33d,  like 
the  fable  of  the  Bundle  of  Sticks,  teaches  the  lesson  of 
unity,  but  in  a  form  a  little  nearer  to  the  understand- 
ing of  children.  Long  ago,  when  Brahmadatta  was 
reigning  in  Benares,  the  future  Buddha  came  to  life 
as  a  quail.  At  that  time  there  was  a  fowler  who 
used  to  go  to  the  place  where  the  quails  dwelt  and 
imitate  their  cry;  and  when  they  had  assembled, 
he  would  throw  his  net  over  them.     But  the  Buddha 


SUPPLEMENTARY   REYVHKS   ()\    'WBL'^S    ir)l 

said  to  the  quails :  "  In  future,  as  soon  as  he  has 
thrown  the  net  over  us,  let  each  thrust  his  head 
through  a  mesh  of  the  net,  then  all  lift  it  together, 
carry  it  off  to  some  bush,  and  escape  from  under- 
neath it."  And  they  did  so  and  were  saved.  But 
one  day  a  quail  trod  unawares  on  the  head  of  an- 
other, and  a  disgraceful  quarrel  ensued.  The  next 
time  the  fowler  threw  his  net  over  them,  each  of 
the  quails  pretended  that  the  others  were  leaving  him 
to  bear  the  greatest  strain,  and  cried  out,  "You 
others  begin,  and  then  I  will  help."  The  conse- 
quence was  that  no  one  began,  and  the  net  was  not 
raised,  and  the  fowler  bagged  them  all.  The  26th 
Jataka  enforces  the  truth  that  evil  communications 
corrupt  good  manners,  and  contains  more  particu- 
larly a  warning  against  listening  to  the  conversation 
of  wicked  people.  Thus  much  concerning  the  Ja- 
taka tales. 

There  exists  also  a  collection  of  Hindu  fairy 
tales  and  fables,  gathered  from  oral  tradition  by  M. 
Frere,  and  published  under  the  title  of  Old  Deccan 
Days.  A  few  of  these  are  very  charming,  and  well 
adapted  for  our  purpose.  For  example,  the  fable  of 
King  Lion  and  the  Sly  Little  Jackals.  The  story  is 
told  with  delightful  naivete.  Singh-Rajah,  the  lion- 
king,  is  very  hungry.  He  has  already  devoured  all 
the  jackals  of  the  forest,  and  only  a  young  married 
couple,  who  are  extremely  fond  of  each  other,  re- 
main. The  little  jackal- wife  is  terribly  frightened 
when  she  hears  in  tlieir  immediate  vicinity  the 
roar  of  Singh-Eajah.     But  the  young  husband  tries 


102        M0I?4L  INSTPv^UCTTON  OF  CHILDREN. 

to  comfort  her,  and  to  save  their  lives  he  hits  on 
the  following  expedient :  He  makes  her  go  with 
him  straight  to  the  cave  of  the  terrible  lion.  Singh- 
Rajah  no  sooner  sees  them  than  he  exclaims  :  "It 
is  Avell  you  have  arrived  at  last.  Come  here  quickly, 
so  that  I  may  eat  you."  The  husband  says  :  "  Yes, 
your  Majesty,  we  are  entirely  ready  to  do  as  you 
bid  us,  and,  in  fact,  we  should  have  come  long  ago, 
as  in  duty  bound,  to  satisfy  your  royal  appetite,  but 
there  is  another  Singh-Rajah  mightier  than  you  in 
the  forest,  who  would  not  let  us  come."  "  What !  " 
says  the  lion,  "  another  Singh-Rajah  mightier  than 
I!  That  is  impossible."  "Oh!  but  it  is  a  fact," 
say  the  young  couple  in  a  breath;  "and  he  is 
really  much  more  terrible  than  you  are."  "  Show 
him  to  me,  then,"  says  Smgh-Rajah,  "and  I  will 
prove  to  you  that  what  you  say  is  false — that  there  is 
no  one  to  be  compared  wuth  me  in  might."  So 
the  little  jackals  ran  on  together  ahead  of  the  lion, 
until  they  reached  a  deep  well.  "  He  is  in  there," 
they  said,  pointing  to  the  well.  The  lion  looked 
down  angrily  and  saw  his  own  image,  the  image 
of  an  angry  lion  glaring  back  at  him.  He  shook 
his  mane ;  the  other  did  the  same.  Singh-Rajah 
thereupon,  unable  to  contain  himself,  leaped  down 
to  fight  his  competitor,  and,  of  course,  was 
drowned.  The  fable  clothes  in  childlike  language 
the  moral  that  anger  is  blind,  and  that  the  objects 
which  excite  our  anger  are  often  merely  the  out- 
ward reflections  of  our  own  passions.  In  the  fable 
of   the   Brahman,  the    Tiger,  and  the  Six  Judges, 


SUPPLEMENTARY  REMARKS  ON  FABLES.  103 

we  have  a  lesson  against  ingratitude,  and  also  against 
useless  destruction  of  animal  life.  In  the  fable  of 
the  Camel  and  the  Jackal,  the  latter  does  not  ap- 
pear in  the  same  favorable  light  as  above.  The 
jackal  and  the  camel  were  good  friends.  One  day 
the  jackal  said  to  his  companion :  "  I  know  of  a 
field  of  sugar-cane  on  the  other  side  of  the  river, 
and  near  by  there  are  plenty  of  crabs  and  small 
fishes.  The  crabs  and  fishes  will  do  for  me,  while 
you  can  make  a  fine  dinner  off  the  sugar-cane.  If 
there  were  only  a  way  of  getting  across  !  "  The 
camel  offered  to  swim  across,  taking  the  jackal 
on  his  back,  and  in  this  way  they  reached  the  op- 
posite bank.  The  jackal  ate  greedily,  and  had  soon 
finished  his  meal  ;  thereupon  he  began  to  run  up 
and  down,  and  to  exercise  his  voice,  screaming 
lustily.  The  camel  begged  him  to  desist,  but  in 
vain.  Presently  the  cries  of  the  jackal  roused  the 
villagers.  They  came  with  sticks  and  cudgels  and 
cruelly  beat  the  camel,  and  drove  him  out  of  the 
field  before  he  had  had  time  to  eat  more  than  a  few 
mouthfuls.  When  the  men  were  gone  at  last,  the 
jackal  said,  "Let  us  now  go  home."  "Very  well," 
said  the  camel,  "  climb  on  my  back."  When  they 
were  midway  between  the  two  banks,  the  camel  said 
to  the  jackal :  "  Why  did  you  make  such  a  noise 
and  spoil  my  dinner,  bringing  on  those  cruel  men, 
who  beat  me  so  that  every  bone  in  my  body  aches? 
Did  I  not  beg  you  to  stop  ? "  "  Oh,"  said  the 
jackal,  "  I  meant  no  harm.  I  was  only  singing  a 
bit.     I  always   sing    after    dinner,  just  for  amuse- 


104       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

ment.''  They  had  by  this  time  reached  the  place 
where  the  water  was  deepest.  ^^Well,"  said  the 
camel,  "  I  also  like  innocent  amusements.  For  in- 
stance, it  is  my  custom  to  lie  on  my  back  after 
dinner  and  to  stretch  myself  a  bit."  "With  that 
he  turned  over,  and  the  jackal  fell  into  the  stream. 
He  swallowed  pailfuls  of  water,  and  it  was  only 
with  the  utmost  difficulty  that  he  succeeded  in 
reaching  the  bank.  He  had  received  a  salutary 
lesson  on  the  subject  of  inconsiderate  selfishness — a 
fault  very  common  with  children,  which  such  a 
story  as  this  may  help  to  correct. 

As  to  the  modern  fables,  I  fear  they  will  yield 
us  but  a  scanty  harvest.  The  fables  of  La  Fontaine, 
where  they  depart  from  ^sopian  originals,  are 
hardly  suitable  for  children,  and  those  of  the  Ger- 
man poet  Gellert  impress  me,  on  the  whole,  in  the 
same  way,  though  a  few  of  them  may  be  added  to 
our  stock.  For  instance,  the  fable  of  the  Green- 
finch and  the  Nightingale.  Tliese  two  birds  oc- 
cupy the  same  cage  before  the  window  of  Damon's 
house.  Presently  the  voice  of  the  nightingale  is 
heard,  and  then  ceases.  Tlie  father  leads  his  little 
boy  before  the  cage  and  asks  him  which  of  the 
two  he  believes  to  have  been  the  sweet  musician, 
the  brightly  colored  greenfinch  or  the  outwardly 
unattractive  nightingale.  The  child  immediately 
points  to  the  former,  and  is  then  instructed  as  to  his 
error.  The  lesson,  of  course,  is  that  fine  clothes 
and  real  worth  do  not  always  go  together.  The 
fable  of  the  Blind  and  the  Lame  Man  teaches  the 


SUPPLEMENTARY  REMARKS  ON  FABLES.  105 

advantages  of  co-operation.  The  Carriage  Horse 
and  the  Cart  Horse  is  a  fable  for  the  rich.  Possi- 
bly the  fable  of  the  Peasant  and  his  Son,  which  is 
directed  against  lies  of  exaggeration,  may  also  be 
utilized,  though  I  realize  that  there  are  objections 
to  it. 


IX. 
STOEIES  FROM   THE   BIBLE. 

Introduction. — It  will  have  been  noticed  tliat  in 
choosing  our  illustrative  material  we  have  confined 
ourselves  to  what  may  be  called  classical  literature. 
The  German  Mdrchen  has  lived  in  the  traditions  of 
the  German  people  for  centuries,  and  is  as  fresh  to- 
day as  Snow-white  herself  when  she  woke  from  her 
trance.  Tlie  fables,  as  has  been  shown,  have  been 
adopted  into  the  language  and  literature  of  Persia, 
of  Arabia,  of  the  nations  of  Europe,  and  are  still 
found  in  the  hands  of  our  own  children.  Let  us 
continue  to  pursue  the  same  method  of  selection. 
Instead  of  relying  on  juvenile  literature  just  pro- 
duced, or  attempting  to  write  moralizing  stories 
specially  adapted  for  the  purpose  in  hand,  let  us 
continue,  without  excluding  invention  altogether, 
to  rely  mainly  on  that  which  has  stood  the  test  of 
time.  In  the  third  part  of  our  primary  course  we 
shall  use  selected  stories  from  the  classical  literature 
of  the  Hebrews,  and  later  on  from  that  of  Greece, 
particularly  the  Odyssey  and  the  Iliad.  The  stories 
to  which  I  refer  possess  a  perennial  vitality,  an  in- 
destructible charm.  I  am,  I  trust,  no  blind  wor- 
shiper of  antiquity.  The  mere  fact  that  a  thing  has 
existed  for  a  thousand  or  two  thousand  years  is  not 

(W6) 


STORIES  FROM   THE  BIBLE.  I07 

always  proof  that  it  is  worth  preserving.  But  the 
fact  that  after  having  been  repeated  for  two  thou- 
sand years  a  story  still  possesses  a  perfectly  fresh 
attraction  for  the  child  of  to-day,  does  indeed  prove 
that  there  is  in  it  something  of  imperishable  worth. 
How  is  this  unique  charm  of  the  classical  literature 
to  be  explained?  What  quality  exists  in  Homer, 
in  the  Bible,  enabling  them,  despite  the  changes  of 
taste  and  fashion,  to  hold  their  own  ?  The  novels 
of  the  last  century  are  already  antiquated  ;  few  care 
to  read  them.  The  poetry  of  the  middle  ages  is 
enjoyed  only  by  those  who  cultivate  a  special  taste 
for  it.  Historical  and  scientific  works  hardly  have 
time  to  leave  an  impression  before  new  books  ap- 
pear to  crowd  them  out.  But  a  few  great  master- 
pieces have  survived,  and  the  truth  and. beauty  of 
these  the  lapse  of  ages,  it  seems,  has  left  unaltered. 
Mr.  Jebb  remarks^  that  Homer  aims  at  the  lucid 
expression  of  primary  motives,  and  refrains  from 
multiplying  individual  traits  which  might  interfere 
w^ith  their  effect,  and  that  this  typical  quality  in 
Homer's  portraiture  has  been  one  secret  of  its  uni- 
versal impressiveness.  The  Homeric  outlines  are  in 
each  case  brilliantly  distinct,  while  they  leave  to  the 
reader  a  certain  liberty  of  private  conception,  and 
he  can  fill  them  in  so  as  to  satisfy  his  own  ideal. 
We  may  add  that  this  is  just  as  true  of  the  Bible  as 
of  Homer.  The  biblical  narrative,  too,  depicts  a  few 
essential  traits  of  human  nature,  and  refrains  from 

*  In  his  Introduction  to  Homer. 


108       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

multiplying  minor  traits  which  might  interfere 
•with  the  main  effect.  The  Bible,  too,  draws  its  fig- 
ures in  outline,  and  leaves  every  age  free  to  fill  them 
in  so  as  to  satisfy  its  own  ideal.  Thus  the  biblical 
story,  as  conceived  in  the  mind  of  Milton,  reflects 
the  Puritan  ideal;  the  same  story,  narrated  in  a 
modern  pulpit  or  Sunday-school,  will  inevitably  re- 
flect, to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  the  modern  humani- 
tarian ideal,  and  this  liberty  of  interpretation  is  one 
cause  of  the  vitality  of  the  Bible.  But  it  may  be 
asked  further.  How  did  Homer,  how  did  the  biblical 
writers,  succeed  in  producing  such  universal  types, 
in  drawing  their  flgures  so  correctly  that,  however 
the  colors  may  thenceforth  be  varied,  the  outlines 
remain  forever  true?  He  who  should  attempt  at 
the  present  day  to  give  expression  to  the  most  uni- 
versal traits  of  human  nature,  freed  from  the  com- 
plex web  of  conditions,  disengaged  from  the  thou- 
sand-fold minor  traits  which  modify  the  universal  in 
particular  instances,  would  flnd  it  difficult  to  avoid 
one  or  the  other  of  two  fatal  errors.  If  he  keeps 
his  eyes  fixed  on  the  universal,  he  is  in  danger  of 
producing  a  set  of  bloodless  abstractions,  pale  shad- 
ows of  reality,  which  will  not  live  for  a  day,  much 
less  for  a  thousand  years.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
he  tries  to  keep  close  to  reality  he  will  probably 
produce  more  or  less  accurate  copies  of  the  types 
that  surround  him,  but  the  danger  will  always  be 
that  the  universal  will  be  lost  amid  the  particulars. 
By  what  quality  in  themselves  or  fortunate  constel- 
lation of  circumstances  did  Homer  and  the  biblical 


STORIES  FROM   THE   BIBLE.  109 

writers  succeed  in  avoiding  both  these  errors,  in 
creating  types  of  the  utmost  universality  and  yet 
imparting  to  them  the  breath  of  life,  the  gait  and 
accent  of  distinctive  individualitv  ?  I  imas^ine  that 
they  succeeded  because  they  lived  at  a  time  when 
life  was  much  less  complex  than  it  is  at  present, 
when  the  conversation,  the  manners,  the  thoughts, 
the  motives  of  men  were  simple.  They  were  en- 
abled to  individualize  the  universal  because  the  most 
universal,  the  simplest  motives,  still  formed  the  main- 
spring in  the  conduct  of  individuals.  It  was  not 
necessary  for  them  to  enter  into  the  barren  region 
of  abstraction  and  generalization  to  discover  the  uni- 
versal. They  pictured  what  they  actually  saw.  The 
universal  and  the  individual  were  still  blended  in 
that  early  dawn  of  human  history. 

We  have  thus  far  spoken  of  Homer  and  the 
Bible  jointly.  But  let  us  now  give  our  particular 
attention  to  the  biblical  narrative.  The  narrative  of 
the  Bible  is  fairly  saturated  with  the  moral  spirit ; 
the  moral  issues  are  everywhere  in  the  forefront. 
Duty,  guilt  and  its  punishment,  the  conflict  of  con- 
science with  inclination,  are  the  leading  themes. 
The  Hebrew  people  seem  to  have  been  endowed 
with  what  may  be  called  "  a  moral  genius,"  and  espe- 
cially did  they  emphasize  the  filial  and  fraternal 
duties  to  an  extent  hardly  equaled  elsewhere.  Now 
it  is  precisely  these  duties  that  must  be  impressed  on 
young  children,  and  hence  the  biblical  stories  pre- 
sent us  with  the  very  material  we  require.  They  can 
not,  in  this  respect,  be  replaced  ;  there  is  no  other  lit- 


110        MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF   CHILDREN. 

erature  in  the  world  that  offers  what  is  equal  to  them 
in  value  for  the  particular  object  we  have  now  in 
view.  Before  proceeding,  however,  to  discuss  the 
stories  in  detail,  let  me  remind  you  that  in  studying 
them  a  larger  tax  is  made  on  the  attention  of  children, 
and  a  higher  development  of  the  moral  judgment 
is  presupposed,  than  in  the  previous  parts  of  our 
course ;  for  in  them  a  succession  of  acts  and  their 
consequences  are  presented  to  the  scholar,  on  each  of 
which  his  judgment  is  to  be  exercised.  Those  who 
teach  the  biblical  stories  merely  because  it  has  been 
customary  to  regard  the  Bible  as  the  text-book  of 
morals  and  religion,  without,  however,  being  clear 
as  to  the  place  which  belongs  to  it  in  a  scheme  of 
moral  education,  will  always,  I  doubt  not,  achieve  a 
certain  result.  The  stories  will  never  entirely  fail 
of  their  beneficial  effect,  but  I  can  not  help  think- 
ing that  this  effect  will  be  greatly  heightened  if  their 
precise  pedagogic  value  is  distinctly  apprehened,  and 
if  the  preparatory  steps  have  been  taken  in  due 
course.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  moral  judgment 
should  first  be  exercised  on  a  single  moral  quality 
a,s  exhibited  in  a  single  act  before  it  is  applied  to  a 
whole  series  of  acts  ;  and  hence  that  the  fable 
should  precede  the  story. 

In  making  our  selection  from  the  rich  material 
before  us  we  need  only  keep  in  mind  the  prin- 
ciple already  enunciated  in  the  introductory  lect- 
ures— that  the  moral  teaching  at  any  period  should 
relate  to  the  duties  of  that  period. 


STORIES    FROM  THE  BIBLE.  HI 

Adam  a?id  Eve  in  Paradise. 

This  is  a  wonderful  story  for  cliildren.  It  de- 
serves to  be  placed  at  the  head  of  all  the  others,  for 
it  inculcates  the  cardinal  virtue  of  childhood — obedi- 
ence. It  is  also  a  typical  story  of  the  beginning, 
the  progress,  and  the  culmination  of  temptation. 
Will  you  permit  me  to  relate  the  story  as  I  should 
tell  it  to  little  children  ?  I  shall  endeavor  to  keep 
true  to  the  outlines,  and  if  I  depart  from  the  re- 
ceived version  in  other  respects,  may  I  not  plead 
that  liberty  of  interpretation  to  which  I  have  re- 
ferred above. 

Once  upon  a  time  there  were  two  cliildren,  Adam 
and  Eve.  Adam  was  a  fine  and  noble-looking  lad. 
He  was  slender  and  well  built,  and  fleet  of  foot  as 
a  young  deer.  Eve  was  as  beautiful  as  the  dawn, 
with  long  golden  tresses,  and  blue  eyes,  and  cheeks 
like  the  rose.  They  lived  in  the  loveliest  garden 
that  you  have  ever  heard  of.  There  were  tall  trees 
in  it,  and  open  meadows  where  the  grass  was  as 
smooth  as  on  a  lawn,  and  clear,  murmuring  brooks 
ran  through  the  woods.  And  there  were  dense 
thickets  filled  with  the  perfume  of  flowers,  and  the 
flowers  grew  in  such  profusion,  and  there  were  so 
many  different  kinds,  each  more  beautiful  than  the 
rest,  that  it  was  a  perfect  feast  for  the  eyes  to  look 
at  them.  It  was  so  warm  that  the  children  never 
needed  to  go  in-doors,  but  at  night  they  would  just 
lie  down  at  the  foot  of  some  great  tree  and  look  at 
the  stars  twinkling  through  the  branches  until  they 


112        MORAL   INSTRUCTION   OF   CHILDREN. 

fell  asleep.  And  when  it  rained  they  would  find 
shelter  in  some  beautiful  cavern,  spreading  leaves 
and  moss  upon  the  ground  for  a  bed.  The  garden 
where  they  lived  was  called  Paradise.  And  there 
were  ever  so  many  animals  in  it — all  kinds  of  ani- 
mals— elephants,and  tigers,  and  leopards,  and  giraffes, 
and  camels,  and  sheep,  and  horses,  and  cows ;  but 
even  the  wild  animals  did  them  no  harm.  But  the 
children  were  not  alone  in  that  garden  :  their  Father 
lived  with  them.  And  every  morning  when  they 
woke  up  their  first  thought  was  to  go  to  him  and 
to  look  up  into  his  mild,  kind  face  for  a  loving 
glance,  and  every  evening  before  they  went  to 
sleep  he  would  bend  over  them.  And  once,  as 
they  lay  under  the  great  tree,  looking  at  a  star  shin- 
ing through  the  branches,  Adam  said  to  Eve  :  "  Our 
Father's  eye  shines  just  like  that  star." 

One  day  their  Father  said  to  them :  "  My  chil- 
dren, there  is  one  tree  in  this  beautiful  garden  the 
fruit  of  which  you  must  not  eat,  because  it  is  hurt- 
ful to  you.  You  can  not  understand  why,  but  you 
know  that  you  must  obey  your  Father  even  when 
you  do  not  understand.  He  loves  you  and  knows 
best  what  is  for  your  good."  So  they  promised,  and 
for  a  time  remembered.  But  one  day  it  happened 
that  Eve  was  passing  near  the  tree  of  the  fruit  of  which 
she  knew  she  nmst  not  eat,  when  what  should  she 
hear  but  a  snake  talking  to  her.  She  did  not  see  it, 
but  she  heard  its  voice  quite  distinctly.  And  this  is 
w^hat  the  snake  said :  "  You  poor  Eve !  you  must 
certainly  have  a  hard  time.     Your  Father  is  always 


STORIES  FROM   THE  BIBLE.  II3 

forbidding  you  something.  How  stern  he  is!  I 
am  sure  that  other  children  can  have  all  the  fruit 
they  want."  Eve  was  frightened  at  first.  She  knew 
that  her  Father  was  kind  and  good,  and  that  the 
snake  was  telling  a  falsehood.  He  did  not  always 
forbid  things.  But  still  he  had  forbidden  her  to 
eat  of  this  fruit,  and  she  thought  that  was  a  little 
hard ;  and  she  could  not  understand  at  all  why  he 
had  done  so.  Then  the  snake  spoke  again :  "  Listen, 
Eve  !  He  forbade  you  to  eat  only  of  it.  It  can  do 
no  harm  just  to  look  at  it.  Go  up  to  it.  See  how 
it  glistens  among  the  branches !  How  golden  it 
looks ! "  And  the  snake  kept  on  whispering  :  "  How 
good  it  must  be  to  the  taste !  Just  take  one  bite  of 
it.  Nobody  sees  you.  Only  one  bite  ;  that  can  do 
no  harm."  And  Eve  glanced  around,  and  saw  that 
no  one  was  looking,  and  presently  with  a  hasty 
movement  she  seized  the  fruit  and  ate  of  it.  Then 
she  said  to  herself  :  "  Adam,  too,  must  eat  of  it.  I  can 
never  bear  to  eat  it  alone."  So  she  ran  hastily  up  to 
Adam,  and  said  :  "  See,  I  have  some  of  the  forbidden 
fruit,  and  you,  too,  must  eat."  And  he,  too,  looked 
at  it  and  was  tempted,  and  ate.  But  that  evening 
they  were  very  much  afraid.  They  knew  they  had 
done  wrong,  and  their  consciences  troubled  them. 
So  they  hurried  away  into  the  wood  where  it  was 
deepest,  and  hid  themselves  in  the  bushes.  But 
soon  they  heard  their  Father  calling  to  them  ;  and 
it  was  strange,  their  Father's  voice  had  never 
sounded  so  sad  before.  And  in  a  few  moments  he 
found  them  where  they  were  hiding.     And  he  said 


114       MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF   CHILDREN. 

to  them  :  "  "Why  do  yon  hide  from  me  ? "  And 
they  were  very  much  confused,  and  stammered 
forth  all  sorts  of  excuses.  But  he  said :  "  Come 
hither,  children."  And  he  looked  into  their  eyes, 
and  said  :  "  Have  yon  eaten  of  the  fruit  of  which 
I  told  yon  not  to  eat?"  And  Adam,  who  was 
thoughtless  and  somewhat  selfish,  spoke  up,  and 
said :  "  Yes,  but  it  was  Eve  who  gave  me  of  it ;  she 
led  me  on."  And  Eve  hung  her  head,  and  said : 
"  It  was  the  snake  that  made  me  eat."  Now  the 
snake,  yon  know,  was  no  real  snake  at  all ;  she  never 
saw  it,  she  only  heard  its  voice.  And,  you  know, 
when  we  want  to  do  anything  wicked,  there  is 
within  every  one  of  us  something  bad,  that  seems  to 
whisper :  "  Just  look !  Mere  looking  will  do  no 
harm  "  ;  and  then  :  "  Just  taste ;  no  one  sees  yon."  So 
the  snake  was  the  bad  feeling  in  Eve's  heart.  And 
their  Father  took  them  by  the  hand,  and  said ;  "  To- 
morrow, when  it  is  dawn,  you  will  have  to  leave 
this  place.  In  this  beautiful  Paradise  no  one  can 
stay  who  has  once  disobeyed.  You,  Adam,  must 
learn  to  labor ;  and,  you,  Eve,  to  be  patient  and 
self-denying  for  others.  And,  perhaps,  after  a  long, 
long  time,  some  day,  you  will  come  back  with  me 
into  Paradise  again." 

It  is  a  free  rendering,  I  admit.  I  have  filled  in 
the  details  so  as  to  bring  it  down  to  the  level  of 
children's  minds,  but  the  outlines,  I  think,  are  there. 
The  points  I  have  developed  are  all  suggested  in 
the  Bible.  The  temptation  begins  when  the  snake 
says  with  characteristic  exaggeration :  "Is  it   true 


STORIES   FROM  THE  BIBLE.  II5 

that  of  all  the  fruit  you  are  forbidden  to  eat  ? "  Ex- 
aggerating the  hardships  of  the  moral  command  is 
the  first  step  on  the  downward  road.  The  second 
step  is  Eve's  approach  to  look  at  the  fruit — "  and 
she  saw  that  it  was  good  for  food,  and  pleasant  to 
the  eyes."  The  third  step  is  the  actual  enjoyment 
of  what  is  forbidden.  The  fourth  step  is  the  desire 
for  companionship  in  guilt,  so  characteristic  of  sin 
— "and  she  gave  also  unto  her  husband  with  her, 
and  he  did  eat."  The  next  passage  describes  the 
working  of  conscience,  the  fear,  the  shame,  the  desire 
to  hide,  and  then  comes  the  moral  verdict :  You  are 
guilty,  both  of  you.  You  have  lost  your  paradise. 
Try  to  win  it  back  by  labor  and  suffering. 

Note. — I  would  add  to  what  has  been  said  in  the  text,  that 
the  pupils  are  expected  to  return  to  the  study  of  the  Bible,  to 
read  and  re-read  these  stories,  and  to  receive  a  progressively 
higher  interpretation  of  their  meaning  as  they  grow  older.  If 
in  the  above  I  have  spoken  in  a  general  way  of  a  Father  and 
his  two  children,  it  will  be  easy  for  the  Sunday-school  teacher 
to  add  later  on  that  the  Father  in  the  story  was  Grod. 

Cain  and  Abel, 

In  teaching  the  story  of  the  two  brothers  Cain 
and  Abel  the  following  points  should  be  noted. 
The  ancients  believed  that  earthly  prosperity  and 
well-being  depended  on  the  favor  of  God,  or  the 
gods,  and  that  the  favor  of  the  gods  could  be  se- 
cured by  sacrifice.  If  any  one  brought  a  sacrifice 
and  yet  prosperity  did  not  set  in,  this  was  supposed 
to  be  a  sign  that  his  sacrifice  had  not  been  accepted. 
On  tlie  other  hand,  to  say  of  any  person  that  his  sacri- 


116        MORAL   INSTRUCTION   OF   CHILDREN. 

fice  had  been  accepted,  was  tantamount  to  saying  that 
he  was  happy  and  prosperous.  Applying  this  to  the 
story  of  Cain  and  Abel,  we  may  omit  all  mention  of 
the  bringing  of  the  sacrifices,  which  presents  a  great 
and  needless  difficulty  to  children's  minds,  and  sim- 
ply make  the  equivalent  statement  that  Abel  was 
prosperous  and  Cain  was  not. 

Again,  Cain  is  not  represented  as  an  intentional 
murderer.  The  true  interpretation  of  the  story  de- 
pends on  our  bearing  this  in  mind.  It  is  erroneous 
to  suppose  that  a  brand  was  fixed  on  Cain's  fore- 
head. The  passage  in  question,  correctly  under- 
stood, means  that  God  gave  Cain  a  sign  to  reassure 
him  that  he  should  not  be  regarded  by  men  as  a 
common  murderer.  "With  these  prefatory  remarks 
the  story  may  be  told  somewhat  as  follows : 

Long  ago  there  lived  two  brothers.  The  name  of 
the  elder  was  Cain,  and  of  the  younger  Abel.  Cain 
was  a  farmer.  He  toiled  in  the  sweat  of  his  brow, 
tilling  the  stubborn  ground,  taking  out  stones, 
building  fences.  "Winter  and  summer  he  was  up 
before  the  sun,  and  yet,  despite  all  his  labor,  things 
did  not  go  well  with  him.  His  crops  often  failed 
through  no  fault  of  his.  He  never  seemed  to  have 
an  easy  time.  Moreover,  Cain  w^as  of  a  proud 
disposition.  Honest  he  was,  and  truthful,  but  taci- 
turn, not  caring  much  to  talk  to  people  whom  he 
met,  but  rather  keeping  to  himself.  Abel,  on  the 
other  hand,  was  a  shepherd.  He  led,  or  seemed  to 
lead,  the  most  delightfully  easy  life.  He  followed 
his  fiocks  from  one  pasture  to  another,  watching 


STORIES  FROM   THE  BIBLE.  II7 

them  graze ;  and  at  noon  he  would  often  lie  down 
in  the  shade  of  some  leafy  tree  and  play  on  his 
flute  by  the  hour.  He  was  a  skillful  musician,  a 
bright,  talkative  companion,  and  universally  popu- 
lar. He  was  a  little  selfish  too,  as  happy  people 
sometimes  are.  He  liked  to  talk  about  his  successes, 
and,  in  a  perfectly  innocent  w^ay,  which  yet  stung 
Cain  to  the  quick,  he  would  rattle  on  to  his  brother 
about  the  increase  of  his  herds,  about  his  plans  and 
prospects,  and  the  pleasant  things  that  people  were 
saying  of  him.  Cain  grew  jealous  of  his  brother 
Abel.  He  did  not  like  to  confess  it  to  himself,  but 
yet  it  was  a  fact.  He  kept  comparing  his  own  life 
of  grinding  toil  with  the  easy,  lazy  life  of  the  shep- 
herd— it  was  not  quite  so  lazy,  but  so  it  seemed  to 
Cain — his  own  poverty  with  the  other's  wealth,  his 
own  loneliness  with  Abel's  popularity.  And  a  frown 
would  often  gather  on  his  brow,  and  he  grew  more 
and  more  moody  and  silent.  He  knew  that  he  was 
not  in  the  right  state  of  mind.  There  was  a  voice 
within  him  that  said :  "  Sin  is  at  thy  door,  but 
thou  canst  become  master  over  it."  Sin  is  like  a 
wild  beast  crouching  outside  the  door  of  the  heart. 
Open  the  door  ever  so  little,  and  it  will  force  its 
way  in,  and  will  have  you  in  its  power.  Keep 
the  door  shut,  therefore  ;  do  not  let  the  first  evil 
thought  enter  into  your  heart.  Thus  only  can  you 
remain  master  of  yourself.  But  Cain  was  already 
too  far  gone  to  heed  the  warning  voice.  One  day  he 
and  Abel  were  walking  together  in  the  fields.  Abel, 
no  doubt,  was  chatting  in  his  usual  gay  and  thought- 


118       MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF   CHILDREN. 

less  manner.  The  world  was  full  of  sunshine  to 
him ;  and  he  did  not  realize  iJ^  the  least  what  dark 
shadows  were  gathering  about  his  brother's  soul. 
Perhaps  the  conversation  ran  somewhat  as  follows : 
He  had  just  had  an  addition  to  his  herd,  the  .finest 
calf  one  could  imagine  :  wo^ld  pot  Cain  come  to  ad- 
mire it  ?  And  then,  to-morrow  evening  he  was"^  to 
play  for  the  dancers  on  the  green,  at  the  village  feast : 
would  not  Cain  join  in  the  merry-making  ?  When 
the  solitary,  embittered  Cain  heard  such  talk  as  this 
the  angry  feeling  in  his  heart  rose  up  like  a  flood. 
Overmastered  by  his  passion,  with  a  few  wild,  in- 
coherent words  of  rage  he  turned  upon  his  brother 
and  struck  him  one  fierce  blow.  Ah,  that  was  a 
relief !  The  pent-up  feeling  had  "found  vent  at  last. 
The  braggart  had  received  the  chastisement  he  de- 
served !  And  Cain  walked  on  ;  and  for  a  time  con- 
tinued to  enjoy  his  satisfaction.  He  had  just  no- 
ticed tiiat  Abel,  when  struck,  had  staggered  and 
fallen,  but  he  did  not  mind  that.  "  Let  him  lie  there 
for  a  while  ;  he  will  pick  himself  up  presently.  He 
may  be  lame  for  a  few  days,  and  his  milk-white  face 
may  not  be  so  fair  at  the  feast,  but  tkat  will  be  all 
the  better  for  him.  It  will  teach  him  a  lesson." 
Nevertheless,  when  he  had  walked  on  for  some  dis- 
tance he  began  to  feel  uneasy.  He  looked  around 
from  time  to  time  to  see  whether  Abel  was  follow- 
ing him,  and  the  voice  of  conscience  began  to  be 
heard,  saying,  '*  Cain,  where  is  thy  brother  ? "  But 
he  silenced  it  by  saying  to  himself,  "Am  I  my 
brother's  keeper  ?     Is  he  such  a  child  that  he  can 


STORIES  FROM   THE  BIBLE.  119 

not  take  care  of  himself — that  he  can  not  stand  a 
blow  ? "  But  he  kept  looking  back  more  and  more 
often,  and  when  he  saw  no  one  coming,  he  came  at 
last  to  a  dead  halt.  His  heart  was  beating  violently 
by  this  time ;  the  beads  of  perspiration  were  gath- 
ered on  his  brow.  He  turned  back  to  seek  his  miss- 
ing brother.  Then,  as  he  did  not  meet  him,  he  began 
to  run,  and  faster  and  faster  he  ran,  until  at  last, 
panting  and  out  of  breath,  with  a  horrible  fear 
hounding  him  on,  he  arrived  at  the  place  where  lie 
had  struck  the  blow.  And  there  he  saw — a  pool  of 
blood,  and  the  waxen  face  of  his  brotlier,  and  the 
glazed,  broken  eyes !  And  then  he  realized  what  he 
had  done.  And  it  is  this  situation  which  the  Bible 
has  in  view  in  the  words,  "Behold,  thy  brother's 
blood  cries  up  from  the  earth  against  thee."  And 
then  as  he  surveyed  his  deed  in  stony  despair,  he 
said  to  himself,  "  I  am  accursed  from  the  face  of  the 
earth  " — I  am  unworthy  to  live.  The  earth  has  no 
resting-place  for  such  as  I.  But  a  sign  was  given 
him  to  show  him  that  his  life  would  not  be  required 
of  him.  He  had  not  committed  willful  murder. 
He  had  simply  given  the  reins  to  his  violent  passion. 
He  must  go  into  another  land,  where  no  one  knew 
him,  there  through  years  of  penance  to  try  to  regain 
his  peace  of  soul.  The  moral  of  the  story  is :  Do 
not  harbor  evil  thoughts  in  the  mind.  If  you  have 
once  given  them  entrance,  the  acts  to  which  they 
lead  are  beyond  your  control.  Cain's  sin  consisted 
in  not  crushing  the  feeling  of  envy  in  the  begin- 
ning ;  in  comparing  his  own  lot  with  that  of  his  more 


120        MORAL   INSTRUCTION   OF   CHILDREN. 

favored  brother  and  dwelling  on  this  comparison, 
until,  in  a  fit  of  insane  passion,  he  was  led  on  to  the 
unspeakable  crime  which,  indeed,  he  had  never  con- 
templated, to  wliich  he  had  never  given  an  inward 
assent.  The  story  also  illustrates  the  vain  subter- 
fuges with  wdiich  we  still  seek  to  smother  the  con- 
sciousness of  guilt  after  we  have  done  wrong,  until 
the  time  comes  when  our  eyes  are  opened  and  we 
are  compelled  to  face  the  consequences  of  our  deeds 
and  to  realize  them  in  all  their  bearings.  The 
story  of  Cain  and  Abel  is  thus  a  further  develop- 
ment of  the  theme  already  treated  in  simpler  fashion 
in  the  story  of  Adam  and  Eve,  only  that,  while  in 
the  latter  case  the  filial  duty  of  obedience  to  par- 
ents is  in  the  foreground,  attention  is  here  directed 
to  the  duty  which  a  brother  owes  to  a  brother.  It  is 
a  striking  tale,  striking  in  the  vividness  with  which 
it  conjures  up  the  circumstances  before  our  minds 
and  the  clearness  with  which  the  principal  motives 
are  delineated  ;  and  it  contains  an  awful  warning 
for  all  time. 

The  question  here  presents  itself,  whether  we 
should  arrange  the  biblical  stories  according  to  sub- 
jects— e.  g.,  grouping  together  all  those  wliich  treat 
of  duty  to  parents,  all  those  which  deal  with  the  rela- 
tions of  brothers  to  brothers,  etc. — or  Avh ether  we 
should  adopt  the  chronological  arrangement.  On  the 
whole,  I  am  in  favor  of  the  latter.  It  is  expected 
that  the  pupils,  as  they  grow  older,  will  undertake 
a  more  comprehensive  study  of  the  Bible,  and  for 
this  they  will  be  better  prepared  if  they  have  been 


STORIES  FROM   THE   BIBLE.  121 

kept  to  the  chronological  order  from  the  outset. 
Another  more  practical  reason  is,  that  children 
tire  of  one  subject  if  it  is  kept  before  their  minds 
too  long.  It  is  better,  therefore,  to  arrange  the  sto- 
ries in  groups  or  cycles,  each  of  which  will  afford 
opportunity  to  touch  on  a  variety  of  moral  topics. 
It '  will  be  impossible  to  continue  to  relate  in  ex- 
tenso  the  stories  which  I  have  selected,  and  I  shall 
therefore  content  myself  in  the  main  with  giving 
the  points  of  each  story  upon  which  the  teacher 
may  lay  stress. 

Tlie  Story  of  Noah  and  his  Sons. 

Describe  the  beauty  of  the  vine,  and  of  the  pur- 
ple grapes  hanging  in  clusters  amid  the  green  leaves. 
How  sweet  is  this  fruit  to  the  taste !  But  the  juice 
of  it  has  a  dangerous  property.  Once  there  lived  a 
man,  Noah,  who  had  three  sons.  He  planted  a 
vine,  plucked  the  grapes,  but  did  not  know  the  dan- 
gerous property  of  the  juice.  The  second  son,  on 
seeing  his  father  in  a  state  of  intoxication,  allowed 
his  sense  of  the  ridiculous  to  overcome  his  feeling 
of  reverence.  But  the  eldest  and  the  youngest  sons 
acted  differently.  They  took  a  garment,  covered 
their  father  with  it,  and  averted  their  faces  so  as 
not  to  see  his  disgrace.  The  moral  is  quite  impor- 
tant. An  intelligent  child  can  not  help  detecting  a 
fault  now  and  then  even  in  the  best  of  parents. 
But  the  right  course  for  him  to  take  is  to  throw  the 
mantle  over  the  fault,  and  to  turn  away  his  face. 
He  should  say  to  himself :  Am  I  the  one  to  judge 


122       MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

my  parents — I  who  have  been  the  recipient  of  so 
many  benefits  at  their  hands,  and  who  see  in  them 
so  many  virtues,  so  much  superior  wisdom  ?  By 
such  reasoning  the  feeling  of  reverence  is  even 
deepened.  The  momentary  superiority  which  the 
child  feels  serves  only  to  bring  out  his  general  in- 
feriority. 

The  Ahraliam  Cycle. 

There  is  a  whole  series  of  stories  belonging  to 
this  group,  illustrating  in  turn  the  virtues  of  broth- 
erly harmony,  generosity  toward  the  weak,  hospital- 
ity toward  strangers,  and  maternal  love.  Abraham 
and  Lot  are  near  kinsmen.  Their  servants  quarrel, 
and  to  avoid  strife  the  former  advises  a  separation. 
"  If  thou  wilt  go  to  the  left,"  he  says,  "  I  will  turn 
to  the  right ;  if  thou  preferrest  the  land  to  the 
right,  I  will  take  the  left."  Abraham,  being  the 
older,  was  entitled  to  the  first  choice,  but  he  waived 
his  claim.  Lot  chose  the  fairer  portion,  and  Abra- 
ham willingly  assented.  "  Let  there  be  no  strife 
between  us,  for  we  be  brethren."  The  lesson  is, 
that  the  older  and  wiser  of  two  brothers  or  kinsmen 
may  well  yield  a  part  of  his  rights  for  harmony's 
sake. 

Abraham's  conduct  toward  the  King  of  Sodom 
is  an  instance  of  generosity.  The  story  of  the  de- 
struction of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  may  be  intro- 
duced by  describing  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  surround- 
ing scene  of  desolation.  The  moral  lies  in  the  cir- 
cumstance that  ill  treatment  of  strangers  brought 
down  the  doom.      Hospitality  toward  strangers  is 


STORIES  FROM  THE  BIBl.E.  123 

one  of  the  shining  virtues  of  the  Old  Testament 
heroes.  Even  at  the  present  day  strangers  are  still 
despised  and  ridiculed  by  the  vulgar,  their  foreign 
manners,  language,  and  habits  seeming  contempti- 
ble ;  the  lesson  of  hospitality  is  not  yet  superfluous. 
The  story  of  Hagar  and  her  Child  I  should  re- 
cast in  such  a  way  as  to  exclude  what  in  it  is  repel- 
lent, and  retain  the  touching  picture  of  maternal 
affection.  1  should  relate  it  somewhat  as  follows  : 
There  was  once  a  little  lad  whose  name  was  Ish- 
mael.  He  had  lost  his  father  and  had  only  his 
mother  to  cling  to.  She  was  a  tall,  beautiful  lady, 
with  dark  eyes  which  were  often  very  sad,  but 
they  would  light  up,  and  there  was  always  a  sweet 
smile  on  her  lips  whenever  she  looked  at  her  dar- 
ling boy.  Ishmael  and  his  mother,  Hagar,  had 
never  been  separated  ;  they  were  all  in  all  to  each 
other.  One  day  it  happened  that  they  walked  away 
from  their  home,  which  was  near  the  great,  sandy 
desert.  Ishmael's  mother  was  in  deep  distress, 
there  was  something  troubling  her,  and  every  now 
and  then  a  tear  would  steal  down  her  cheeks.  Ish- 
mael was  sad,  too,  because  his  mother  was,  but  he 
did  not  dare  to  ask  her  what  it  was  that  grieved 
her,  fearing  to  give  her  pain.  So  they  walked  on 
and  on,  holding  each  other's  hands  in  silence.  But 
at  last  they  saw  that  they  had  lost  their  way ;  and 
they  tried  first  one  direction,  and  then  another, 
thinking  that  it  would  bring  them  back  toward 
home,  but  they  only  got  deeper  and  deeper  into  the 
vast,  lonely  desert.     And  the  sun  burned  hot  and 


124        MORAL   INSTRUCTION   OF   CHILDREN. 

hotter  above  their  heads,  and  little  Ishmael,  who  had 
tried  to  keep  up  like  a  brave  lad,  at  last  became 
so  parched  with  thirst,  and  so  faint  with  want  of 
food,  and  so  tired  with  walking — for  they  had  w^an- 
dered  about  for  many,  many  hours — that  he  could 
go  on  no  farther.  Then  his  mother  took  him  up  in 
her  arms  and  laid  him  under  a  bush,  w^iere  there 
was  a  little  shade.  And  then,  oh  then,  how  her 
poor  heart  was  wrung,  and  how  she  w^ept  to  see  her 
darling  in  such  suffering,  and  how  she  cried  for  help  ! 
Then  she  sat  down  on  the  glaring  sand  at  some  dis- 
tance away,  and  turned  her  face  in  the  direction  op- 
posite to  where  Ishmael  was  lying  ;  for  she  said, 
''  I  can  not  bear  to  see  my  boy  die."  But  just  as 
she  had  given  up  all  hope,  suddenly  she  saw  a  no- 
ble-looking man,  wearing  the  dress  of  the  Bedouins, 
approach  her.  He  had  come  from  behind  one  of 
the  sand  hills,  and  it  seemed  to  her  as  if  he  had 
come  dow^n  straight  from  the  sky.  He  asked  her 
w^hy  she  was  in  such  grief,  and  when  she  told  him, 
and  pointed  to  her  little  son,  he  said  :  "  It  is  fortu- 
nate that  you  have  come  to  this  place.  There  is  a 
beautiful  oasis  close  by."  An  oasis,  children,  is  a 
spot  of  fruitful  green  earth  right  in  the  midst  of 
the  desert,  like  an  island  in  the  ocean.  And  the 
man  took  the  boy  up  and  carried  him  in  his  arms, 
and  Hagar  followed  after  him.  And  presently, 
when  they  came  to  the  oasis,  they  found  a  cool, 
clear  spring,  full  of  the  most  delicious  water,  and 
palm-trees  with  ever  so  many  dates  on  them,  and  all 
the  people  who  lived  there  gathered  around  them. 


STORIES  FROM   THE  BIBLE.  125 

And  the  man  wlio  had  been  so  kind  proved  to  be 
the  chief.  And  he  took  charge  of  Ishmael's  educa- 
tion, showed  him  how  to  shoot  with  the  bow  and 
how  to  hunt,  and  was  Hke  a  real  father  to  him. 
And  when  Ishmael  grew  up  he  became  a  great  chief 
of  the  Bedouins.  But  he  always  remained  true  to 
his  mother,  and  loved  her  with  all  his  heart. 

I  am  strongly  in  favor  of  omitting  the  story  of 
the  Sacrijice  of  Isaac.  I  do  not  think  we  can 
afford  to  tell  young  children  that  a  father  was  pre- 
pared to  draw  the  knife  against  his  own  son,  even 
though  he  desisted  in  the  end.  I  should  not  be 
willing  to  inform  a  child  that  so  horrible  an  impulse 
could  have  been  entertained  even  for  a  moment  in 
a  parent's  heart.  I  regard  the  story,  indeed,  as, 
from  an  historical  point  of  view,  one  of  the  most 
valuable  in  the  Bible  ;  it  has  a  deep  meaning ;  but 
it  is  not  food  fit  for  children.  A  great  mistake 
has  been  made  all  along  in  supposing  that  whatever 
is  true  in  religion  must  be  communicated  to  chil- 
dren ;  and  that  if  anything  be  very  true  and  very 
important  we  ought  to  hasten  to  give  it  to  children 
as  early  as  possible  ;  but  there  must  be  preparatory 
training.  And  the  greatest  truths  are  often  of  such 
a  kind  as  only  the  mature  mind,  ripe  in  thought  and 
experience,  is  fitted  to  assimilate. 

One  of  the  most  charming  idyls  of  patriarchal 
times  is  the  story  of  Rebecca  at  the  Well,  It  illus- 
trates positively,  as  the  story  of  Sodom  does  nega- 
tively, the  duty  of  hospitality  toward  strangers. 
'^  Drink,  lord,  and   I  will  give  thy  camels   drink 


126       MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF   CHILDREN. 

also,"  is  a  pleasant  phrase  which  is  apt  to  stick  in 
the  memory.  Moreover,  the  story  shows  the  high 
place  which  the  trusted  servant  occupied  in  the 
household  of  his  master,  and  offers  to  the  teacher 
an  opportunity  of  dwelling  on  the  respect  due  to 
faithful  servants. 

The  Jacob  Cycle, 

What  treatment  shall  Jacob  receive  at  our  hands, 
he,  the  sly  trickster,  who  cheats  his  brother  of  his 
birthright  and  steals  a  father's  blessing?  Yet  he  is 
one  of  the  patriarchs,  and  is  accorded  the  honorable 
title  of  "  champion  of  God."  To  hold  him  up  to 
the  admiration  of  the  young  is  impossible.  To  gloss 
over  his  faults  and  try  to  explain  them  away  were  a 
sorry  business,  and  honesty  forbids.  The  Bible  it- 
self gives  us  the  right  clew.  His  faults  are  nowhere 
disguised.  He  is  represented  as  a  person  who  makes 
a  bad  start  in  life — a  very  bad  start,  indeed — but 
who  pays  the  penalty  of  his  wrong-doing.  His  is  a 
story  of  penitential  discipline. 

In  telling  the  story,  all  reference  to  the  duplicity 
of  Eebecca  should  be  omitted,  for  the  same  reason 
that  malicious  step-mothers  and  cruel  fathers  have 
been  excluded  from  the  fairy  tales. 

The  points  to  be  discussed  may  be  summarized 
as  follows : 

Taking  advantage  of  a  hrother  in  distress. — 
Jacob  purchases  the  birthright  for  a  mess  of  pot- 
tage. 

Tender  attachment  to  a  lieljpless  old  father, — • 


STORIES  FROM   THE  BIBLE.  127 

Esan  goes  out  hunting  to  supply  a  special  delicacy 
for  his  father's  table.  This  is  a  point  which  children 
will  appreciate.  Unable  to  confer  material  benefits 
on  their  parents,  they  can  only  show  their  love  by 
slight  attentions. 

Deceit. — Jacob  simulates  the  appearance  of  his 
older  brother  and  steals  the  blessing.  In  this  con- 
nection it  will  be  necessary  to  say  that  a  special 
power  was  supposed  to  attach  to  a  father's  blessing, 
and  that  the  words  once  spoken  were  deemed  irrevo- 
cable. 

JacoVs  penitential  discipline  begins. — The  de- 
ceiver is  deceived,  and  made  to  feel  in  his  own  per- 
son the  pain  and  disappointment  which  deceit 
causes.  He  is  repeatedly  cheated  by  his  master 
Laban,  especially  in  the  matter  which  is  nearest  to 
him,  his  love  for  Rachel. 

The  forgiveness  of  injuries. — Esau's  magnani- 
mous conduct  toward  his  brother. 

The  evil  consequences  of  tale-hearing  and  conceit. 
— It  is  a  significant  fact  that  Joseph  is  not  a  mere 
coxcomb.  He  is  a  man  of  genius,  as  his  later  career 
proves,  and  the  stirrings  of  his  genius  manifest 
themselves  in  his  early  dreams  of  future  greatness. 
Persons  of  this  description  are  not  always  pleasant 
companions,  especially  in  their  youth.  They  have 
not  yet  accomplished  anything  to  warrant  distinc- 
tion, and  yet  they  feel  within  themselves  the  pre- 
sentiment of  a  destiny  and  of  achievements  above  the 
ordinary.  Their  faults,  their  arrogance,  their  seem- 
ingly preposterous  claims,  are  not  to  be  excused,  but 


128       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

neither  is  the  envj  they  excite  excusable.  One  of 
the  hardest  things  to  learn  is  to  recognize  without 
envy  the  superiority  of  a  brother. 

Moral  cowardice. — Eeuben  is  guilty  of  moral 
cowardice.  He  was  an  opportunist,  who  sought  to 
accomplish  his  ends  by  diplomacy.  If  he,  as  the 
oldest  brother,  had  used  his  authority  and  boldly 
denounced  the  contemplated  crime,  he  might  have 
averted  the  long  train  of  miseries  that  followed. 

Strength  and  depth  of  paternal  love, — ''Joseph 
is  no  more  :  an  evil  beast  has  devoured  him.  I  will 
go  mourning  for  my  son  Joseph  into  the  grave." 
It  is  a  piece  of  poetic  justice  that  Jacob,  who  de- 
ceived his  father  in  the  matter  of  the  blessing  by 
covering  himself  with  the  skin  of  a  kid,  is  himself 
deceived  by  the  blood  of  a  kid  of  the  goats  with 
which  the  coat  of  Joseph  had  been  stained. 

In  speaking  of  the  temptation  of  Joseph  in  the 
house  of  Potiphar,  it  is  enough  to  say  that  the  wife 
conspired  against  her  husband,  and  endeavored  to 
induce  Joseph  to  betray  his  master.  A  pretty  addi- 
tion to  the  story  is  to  be  found  in  the  Talmud,  to 
the  effect  that  Joseph  saw  in  imagination  the  face 
of  his  father  before  him  in  the  moment  of  tempta- 
tion, and  was  thereby  strengthened  to  resist. 

The  light  of  a  superior  mind  can  not  he  hidden 
even  in  a  prison. — Joseph  wins  the  fa^or  of  his  fel- 
low-prisoners, and  an  op23ortunity  is  thus  opened  to 
him  to  exercise  his  talents  on  the  largest  scale. 

Affliction  chastens. — The  famine  had  in  the 
mean  time  spread  to  Palestine.     The  shadow  of  the 


STORIES  FROM  THE  BIBLE.  129 

grief  for  Joseph  still  lay  heavily  on  the  household 
of  the  patriarch.  Joseph  is  lost;  shall  Benjamin, 
too,  perish  ?  It  is  pleasant  to  observe  that  the  char- 
acter of  the  brothers  in  the  mean  time  has  been 
changed  for  the  better.  There  is  evidently  a  lurk- 
ing sense  of  guilt  and  a  desire  to  atone  for  it  in  the 
manner  in  which  Judali  pledges  himself  for  the 
safety  of  the  youngest  child.  And  the  same  marked 
change  is  visible  in  the  conduct  of  all  the  brothers 
on  the  journey.  The  stratagem  of  the  cup  was 
cunningly  devised  to  test  their  feelings.  They 
might  have  escaped  by  throwing  the  blame  on 
Benjamin.  Instead  of  that,  they  dread  nothing  so 
much  as  that  he  may  have  to  suffer,  and  are  willing 
to  sacrifice  everything  to  save  him.  When  this  new 
spirit  has  become  thoroughly  apparent,  the  end  to 
which  the  whole  group  of  Jacob  stories  pointed  all 
along  is  reached  ;  the  work  of  moral  regeneration 
is  complete.  Jacob  himself  has  been  purified  by 
affliction,  and  the  brothers  and  Joseph  have  been 
developed  by  the  same  hard  taskmaster  into  true 
men.  The  scene  of  recognition  which  follows, 
when  the  great  vice-regent  orders  his  attendants 
from  the  apartment  and  embraces  those  who  once 
attempted  his  life,  with  the  words,  "  I  am  Joseph, 
your  brother :  does  my  father  still  live  ? "  is  touch- 
ing in  the  extreme,  and  the  whole  ends  happily  in  a 
blaze  of  royal  pomp,  like  a  true  Eastern  tale. 

A  word  as  to  the  method  which  should  be  used 
in  teaching  these  stories.  If  the  fairy  tale  holds 
the  moral  element  in  solution,  if  the  fable  drills  the 


130       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

pupil  in  distinguishing  one  moral  trait  at  a  time,  the 
biblical  stories  exhibit  a  combination  of  moral  qual- 
ities, or,  more  precisely,  the  interaction  of  moral 
causes  and  effects ;  and  it  is  important  for  the  teacher 
to  give  expression  to  this  difference  in  the  manner 
in  which  he  handles  the  stories.  Thus,  in  the  fables 
we  have  simply  one  trait,  like  ingratitude,  and  its 
immediate  consequences.  The  snake  bites  the  coun- 
tryman, and  is  cast  out ;  there  the  matter  ends.  In 
the  story  of  Joseph  we  have,  first,  the  partiality  of 
the  father,  which  produces  or  encourages  self-conceit 
in  the  son ;  Joseph's  conceit  produces  envy  in  the 
brothers.  This  envy  reacts  on  all  concerned — on 
Joseph,  who  in  consequence  is  sold  into  slavery  ;  on 
the  father,  who  is  plunged  into  inconsolable  grief ; 
on  the  brothers,  who  nearly  become  murderers. 
The  servitude  of  Joseph  destroys  his  conceit  and  de- 
velops his  nobler  nature.  Industry,  fidelity,  and  sa- 
gacity raise  him  to  high  power.  The  sight  of  the 
constant  affliction  of  their  father  on  account  of  Jo- 
seph's loss  mellows  the  heart  of  the  brothers,  etc. 
It  is  this  interweaving  of  moral  causes  and  effects 
that  gives  to  the  stories  their  peculiar  value.  They 
are  true  moral  pictures  ;  and,  like  the  pictures  used 
in  ordinary  object  lessons,  they  serve  to  train  the 
power  of  observation.  Trained  observation,  how- 
ever, is  the  indispensable  preliminary  of  correct 
moral  judgment. 


STORIES  FROM  THE  BIBLE.  131 

The  Moses  Cycle. 

The  figures  of  the  patriarchs  and  the  prophets 
appeal  to  us  with  a  fresh  interest  the  moment  we 
regard  them  as  human  beings  Hke  ourselves,  who 
were  tempted  as  we  are,  who  struggled  as  we  are 
bound  to  do,  and  who  acted,  howsoever  the  divine 
economy  might  supervene,  on  their  own  responsi- 
bility. Looked  at  from  this  point  of  view,  the 
figure  of  Moses,  the  Liberator,  approaches  our 
sympathies  at  the  same  time  that  he  towers  in  im- 
posing proportions  above  our  level.  Let  us  briefly 
review  his  career.  Like  Arminius  at  a  later  day,  he 
is  educated  at  the  court  of  the  enemies  of  his  peo- 
ple. In  dress,  in  manners,  in  speech,  he  doubtless 
resembles  the  grandees  of  Pharaoh's  court.  When 
he  approaches  the  well  in  Midian,  the  daughter  of 
Jethro  exclaims,  ^'Behold,  an  Egyptian  is  com- 
ing ! "  But  at  heart  he  remains  a  Hebrew,  and  is 
deeply  touched  by  the  cruel  sufferings  of  his  race. 
His  first  public  intervention  on  their  behalf  takes 
place  when  he  strikes  down  and  kills  a  native  over- 
seer w^hom  he  detects  in  the  act  of  maltreating  a  He- 
brew slave.  This  is  characteristic  of  the  manner  in 
which  reformers  begin.  They  direct  their  first  efforts 
against  the  particular  consequences  of  some  great 
general  wrong.  Later  on  they  perceive  the  useless- 
ness  of  such  a  procedure  and  take  heart  to  attack  the 
evil  at  its  source.  Moses  fiees  into  the  desert.  The 
lonely  life  he  leads  there  is  necessary  to  the  develop- 
ment of  his  ideas.      Solitude   is   essential   to   the 


132       MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF   CHILDREN. 

growth  of  genius.  The  burning  bush  is  the  out- 
ward symbol  of  an  inward  fact.  The  fire  which 
can  not  be  quenched  is  in  his  own  breast,  and  out  of 
that  inward  burning  he  hears  more  and  more  dis- 
tinctly the  voice  which  bids  him  go  back  and  free 
his  people.  But  wdien  he  considers  the  means  at 
his  disposal,  when  in  fancy  he  sees  his  people,  a 
miserable  horde  of  slaves,  pitted  against  the  armed 
hosts  of  Pharaoh,  he  is  ready  to  despair ;  until 
he  hears  the  comforting  voice,  which  says,  "  The 
Eternal  is  with  thee  ;  the  unchangeable  power  of 
right  is  on  thy  side :  it  will  prevail !  "  Like  Jere- 
miah, like  Isaiah,  like  all  great  reformers,  Moses  is 
profoundly  imbued  with  the  sense  of  his  unfitness 
for  the  task  laid  upon  him.  He  pleads  that  he  is 
heavy  of  speech.  He  can  only  stammer  forth  the 
message  of  freedom.  But  he  is  reassured  by  the 
thought  that  a  brother  will  be  foimd,  that  helpers 
will  arise,  that  the  thought  which  he  can  barely  for-, 
mulate  will  be  translated  by  other  lesser  men  into  a 
form  suitable  for  the  popular  understanding.  He 
returns  to  Egypt  to  find  that  the  greatest  obstacle 
in  his  way  is  the  lethargy  and  unbelief  of  the 
very  people  whom  he  wishes  to  help.  This  again 
is  a  typical  feature  of  his  career.  The  greatest 
trials  of  the  reformer  are  due  not  to  the  open 
enmity  of  the  oppressor,  but  to  the  meanness,  the 
distrust  and  jealousy,  of  those  w^liom  oppression  has 
degraded.  At  last,  however,  the  miracle  of  salva- 
tion is  wrought,  the  weak  prevail  over  the  mighty, 
the  cause  of  justice  triumphs  against  all  apparent 


STORIES  FROM  THE  BIBLE.  133 

odds  to  the  contrary.  The  slaves  rise  against  their 
masters,  the  flower  of  Egyptian  chivalry  is  destroyed. 
Pharaoh  rallies  his  army  and  sets  out  in  pursuit. 
But  the  Hebrews,  under  Moses's  guidance,  have 
gained  the  start,  and  escape  into  the  wilderness  in 
safety. 

Freedom  is  a  precious  opportunity — no  more. 
Its  value  depends  on  the  use  to  which  it  is  put.  And 
therefore,  no  sooner  was  the  act  of  liberation  accom- 
plished, than  the  great  leader  turned  to  the  task  of 
positive  legislation,  the  task  of  developing  a  higher 
moral  life  among  his  people.  But  here  a  new 
and  keener  disappointment  awaited  him.  When  he 
descended  from  the  mount,  the  glow  of  inspiration 
still  upon  his  face,  the  tablets  of  the  law  in  his 
hand,  he  saw  the  people  dancing  about  the  golden 
calf.  It  is  at  this  moment  that  Michel  Angelo, 
deeply  realizing  the  human  element  in  the  biblical 
story,  has  represented  the  form  of  the  liberator  in 
the  colossal  figure  which  was  destined  for  Pope 
Julius's  tomb.  "  The  right  foot  is  slightly  advanced  ; 
the  long  beard  trembles  with  the  emotion  which 
quivers  through  the  whole  frame ;  the  eyes  flash 
indignant  wTath ;  the  right  hand  grasps  the  tablets 
of  the  law ;  in  another  moment,  w^e  see  it  plainly, 
he  will  leap  from  his  sitting  posture  and  shatter 
the  work  which  he  has  made  upon  the  rocks." 
This  trait,  too,  is  typical.  Many  a  leader  of  a  noble 
cause  has  felt,  in  moments  of  deep  disappointment, 
as  if  he  could  shatter  the  whole  work  of  his  life. 
Many  a  man,  in  like  situation,  has  said  to  himself  : 


134       MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

The  people  are  willing  enough  to  hail  the  message  of 
the  higher  law  to-day,  but  to-morrow  they  sink  back 
into  their  dull,  degraded  condition,  as  if  the  vision 
from  the  mount  had  never  been  reported  to  them. 
Let  me,  then,  leave  them  to  their  dreary  ways,  to 
dance  about  their  golden  calf.  But  a  better  and 
stronger  mood  prevailed  in  Moses.  He  ascended 
once  more  to  the  summit,  and  there  prostrated  him- 
self in  utter  self-renunciation  and  self-effacement. 
He  asked  nothing  for  himself,  only  that  the  people 
whom  he  loved  might  be  benefited  ever  so  little, 
be  raised  ever  so  slowly  above  their  low  condition. 
And  again  the  questioning  spirit  came  upon  him, 
and  he  said,  as  many  another  has  said :  The  paths 
of  progress  are  dark  and  twisted ;  the  course  of  his- 
tory seems  so  often  to  be  in  the  wrong  direction. 
How  can  I  be  sure  that  there  is  such  a  thing  as 
eternal  truth — that  the  right  will  prevail  in  the  end  ? 
And  then  there  came  to  him  that  grand  revelation, 
the  greatest,  as  I  think,  and  the  most  sublime  in  the 
Old  Testament,  when  the  eternal  voice  answered  his 
doubt,  and  said  :  "  Thou  wouldst  know  my  ways,  but 
canst  not.  No  living  being  can  see  my  face ;  only 
from  the  rearward  canst  thou  know  me."  As  a  ship 
sails  through  the  waters  and  leaves  its  wake  behind, 
so  the  divine  Power  passes  through  the  world  and 
leaves  behind  the  traces  by  which  it  can  be  known. 
And  what  are  those  traces?  Justice  and  mercy. 
Cherish,  therefore,  the  divine  element  in  thine  own 
nature,  and  thou  wilt  see  it  reflected  in  the  world 
about  thee.    Wouldst  thou  be  sure  that  there  is  such 


STORIES  FROM  THE  BIBLE.  135 

a  thing  as  a  divine  Power  ?  be  thyself  jnst  and  mer- 
ciful. And  so  Moses  descended  again  to  his  people, 
and  became  exceeding  charitable  in  spirit.  The  Bible 
says :  "  The  man  Moses  was  exceeding  humble  ;  there 
was  no  one  more  humble  than  he  on  the  face  of  the 
earth."  He  bore  with  resignation  their  complaints, 
their  murmurings,  their  alternate  cowardice  and 
foolhardiness.  He  was  made  to  feel,  like  many 
another  in  his  place,  that  his  foes  were  they  of  his 
own  household.  He  had  an  only  brother  and  an 
only  sister.  His  brother  and  sister  rose  up  against, 
him.  His  kinsmen,  too,  revolted  from  him.  He 
endured  all  their  weakness,  all  their  follies ;  he 
sought  to  lift  them  by  slow  degrees  to  the  height 
of  his  own  aims.  He  set  the  paths  of  life  and 
death  before  them,  and  told  them  that  the  divine 
word  can  not  be  found  by  crossing  the  seas  or  by 
searching  the  heavens,  but  must  be  found  in  the 
human  heart ;  and  if  men  find  it  not  there  they 
will  find  it  nowhere  else.  And  so,  at  last,  his  pil- 
grimage drew  to  a  close.  He  had  reached  the  con- 
fines of  Palestine.  Once  more  he  sought  the  mount- 
ain-top, and  there  beheld  the  promised  land  stretch- 
ing far  away — the  land  which  his  eyes  were  to  see 
but  which  he  was  never  to  enter.  Few  great  reform- 
ers, indeed  few  men  who  have  started  a  great  move- 
ment in  history,  and  have  been  the  means  of  pro- 
ducing deep  and  permanent  changes  in  the  ideas 
and  institutions  of  society,  have  lived  to  see  those 
changes  consummated.  The  course  of  evolution  is 
slow,  and  the  reformer  can  hope  at  best  to  see  the 


136       MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

promised  land  from  afar— as  in  a  dream.  Happy 
he  if,  like  Moses,  lie  retains  the  force  of  his  con- 
victions unabated,  if  his  spiritual  sight  remains  nn- 
dimmed,  if  the  splendid  vision  which  attended  him 
in  the  beginning  inspires  and  consoles  him  to  the 
end. 

The  narrative  which  has  thns  been  sketched 
touches  on  some  of  the  weightiest  problems  of  hu- 
man existence,  and  deals  with  motives  both  complex 
and  lofty.  I  have  entered  into  the  interpretation  of 
these  motives  for  the  purpose  of  showing  that  they 
are  too  complex  and  too  lofty  to  be  within  the  com- 
prehension of  children,  and  that  it  is  an  error, 
though  unfortunately  a  common  one,  to  attempt  to 
use  the  grand  career  of  a  reformer  and  liberator  as 
a  text  for  the  moral  edification  of  the  very  young. 
They  are  wholly  unprepared  to  understand,  and  that 
which  is  not  understood,  if  forced  on  the  attention, 
awakens  repugnance  and  disgust.  Few  of  those 
who  have  been  compelled  to  study  the  life  of  Moses 
in  their  childhood  have  ever  succeeded  in  conquer- 
ing this  repugnance,  or  have  drawn  from  it,  even  in 
later  life,  the  inspiration  and  instruction  which  it 
might  otherwise  have  afforded  them.  For  our  pri- 
mary course,  however,  we  can  extract  a  few  points 
interesting  even  to  children,  thus  making  them  fa- 
miliar with  the  name  of  Moses,  and  preparing  the 
way  for  a  deeper  interest  later  on.  The  incidents  of 
the  story  which  I  should  select  are  these :  The  child 
Moses  exposed  on  the  Nile ;  the  good  sister  watching 
over  his  safety ;  the  kind  princess  adopting  him  as 


STORIES  FROM  THE  BIBLE.  137 

her  son;  th§  sympathy  manifested  by  him  for  his 
enslaved  brethren  despite  his  exemption  from  their 
misfortunes.  The  killing  of  the  Egyptian  should  be 
represented  as  a  crime,  palliated  but  not  excused  by 
the  cruelty  of  the  overseer.  Special  stress  may  be 
laid  upon  the  chivalric  conduct  of  Moses  toward  the 
young  girls  at  the  well  of  Midian.  The  teacher 
may  then  go  on  to  say  that  Moses,  having  succeeded 
in  freeing  his  people  from  the  power  of  the  Egyptian 
king,  became  their  chief,  that  many  wise  laws  are 
ascribed  to  him,  etc.  The  story  of  the  spies,  and  of 
the  end  of  Moses,  may  also  be  briefly  told. 

The  mention  of  the  laws  of  Moses  leads  me  to 
offer  a  suggestion.  I  have  remarked  above  that 
children  should  be  taught  to  observe  moral  pictures 
before  any  attempt  is  made  to  deduce  moral  princi- 
ples ;  but  certain  simfple  rules  should  be  given  even 
to  the  very  young — must,  indeed,  be  given  them  for 
their  guidance.  Now,  in  the  legislation  ascribed  to 
Moses  we  find  a  number  of  rules  fit  for  children, 
and  a  collection  of  these  rules  might  be  made  for 
the  use  of  schools.  They  should  be  committed  to 
memory  by  the  pupils,  and  perhaps  occasionally  re- 
cited in  chorus.  I  have  in  mind  such  rules  as 
these :  ^ 

1.  Ye  shall  not  lie.  (Many  persons  who  pay  at- 
tention only  to  the  Decalogue,  and  forget  the  legisla- 
tion of  which  it  forms  a  part,  seem  not  to  be  aware 

*  I  have  taken  the  liberty  of  altering  the  language  here  and 
there,  for  reasons  that  will  be  obvious  in  each  case. 


138        MORAL   INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

that  there  is  in  the  Pentateuch  [Lev.  xix,  11]  a  dis- 
tinct commandment  against  lying.) 

2.  Ye  shall  not  deceive  one  another. 

3.  Ye  shall  take  no  bribe. 

4.  Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother. 

5.  Every  one  shall  reverence  his  mother  and  his 
father.  (Note  that  the  father  is  placed  first  in  the 
one  passage  and  the  mother  first  in  the  other,  to  in- 
dicate the  equal  title  of  both  to  their  children's  rev- 
erence.) 

6.  Thou  shalt  not  speak  disrespectfully  of  those 
in  authority. 

7.  Before  the  hoary  head  thou  shalt  rise  and  pay 
honor  to  the  aged. 

10.  Thou  shalt  not  spread  false  reports. 

11.  Thou  shalt  not  go  about  as  a  tale-bearer 
among  thy  fellows. 

12.  Thou  shalt  not  hate  thy  neighbor  in  thy 
heart,  but  shalt  warn  him  of  his  evil-doing. 

13.  Thou  shalt  not  bear  a  grudge  against  any, 
but  thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself. 

8.  Thou  shalt  not  speak  evil  of  the  deaf  (think- 
ing that  he  can  not  hear  thee),  nor  put  an  obstacle 
in  the  way  of  the  blind. 

9.  If  there  be  among  you  a  poor  man,  thou  shalt 
not  harden  thy  heart,  nor  shut  thy  hand  from  thy 
poor  brother,  but  thou  shalt  open  thy  hand  wide  unto 
him,  and  shalt  surely  lend  him  sufficient  for  his  need. 

14.  If  thou  seest  the  property  of  thine  enemy 
threatened  with  destruction,  thou  shalt  do  thy  utmost 
to  save  it. 


STORIES   FROM  TPIE   BIBLE.  139 

15.  If  thou  findest  what  is  not  thine  own,  and 
the  owner  is  not  known  to  thee,  guard  it  carefully, 
that  thou  mayest  restore  it  to  its  rightful  owner. 

16.  Thou  shalt  not  do  evil  because  many  others 
are  doing  the  same  evil. 

Bearing  grudges,  lying,  mocking  those  who  (like 
the  deaf  and  blind)  are  afflicted  with  personal  de- 
fects, appropriating  what  is  found  without  attempt- 
ing to  discover  the  owner,  seeking  to  excuse  wrong 
on  the  plea  that  many  others  are  guilty  of  it — all 
these  are  forms  of  moral  evil  with  which  children 
are  perfectly  familiar,  and  against  which  they  need 
to  be  warned.  It  is  more  than  strange  that  such 
commandments  as  the  sixth  and  eighth  of  the  Deca- 
logue (the  commandment  against  murder  and  against 
adultery,  forsooth),  which  are  inapplicable  to  little 
children,  should  be  made  so  much  of  in  primary 
moral  instruction,  while  those  other  commandments 
which  do  come  home  to  them  are  often  overlooked. 
The  theory  here  expounded,  that  moral  teaching 
should  keep  pace  with  the  experience  and  intelli- 
gence of  the  child,  should  save  us  from  such  mis- 
takes. 

To  proceed  with  the  stories,  the  book  of  Joshua 
offers  nothing  that  we  can  turn  to  account,  nor  do 
the  stories  of  Jael,  Deborah,  and  Gideon  contain 
moral  lessons  fit  for  the  young.  Sour  milk  is  not 
proper  food  for  children,  nor  do  those  stories  afford 
the  proper  moral  food  in  which,  so  to  speak,  the 
milk  of  human  kindness  has  turned  sour.  The 
labors  of  Samson,  the  Hebrew  Hercules,  are  likewise 


140       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

unfit  to  be  used  at  this  stage,  at  least  for  the  pur- 
pose of  moral  instruction.  The  story  of  the  daugh- 
ter of  Jephtha,  the  Hebrew  Iphigenia,  is  exquisitely 
pathetic,  but  it  involves  the  horrible  idea  of  human 
sacrifice,  and  therefore  had  better  be  omitted.  The 
acts  and  speeches  of  Samuel  mark  an  epoch  in  the 
historj^  of  the  Hebrew  religion,  and  are  of  profound 
interest  to  the  scholar.  But  there  are  certain  feat- 
ures, such  as  the  killing  of  Agag,  which  would  have 
to  be  eliminated  in  any  case;  then  the  theological 
and  moral  elements  are  so  blended  that  it  would  be 
difiicult  if  not  impossible  to  separate  them  ;  and 
altogether  the  character  of  this  mighty  ancient  seer, 
this  Hebrew  Warwick,  this  king-maker  and  enemy 
of  kings,  is  above  the  comprehension  of  primary 
scholars.  We  shall  therefore  omit  the  whole  inter- 
vening period,  and  pass  at  once  from  the  Moses 
cycle  to 

The  David  Cycle, 

The  first  story  of  this  group  is  that  of  Naomi 
and  Ruih^  the  ancestress  of  David.  Upon  the 
matchless  beauty  of  this  tale  it  is  unnecessary  to  ex- 
patiate. I  wish  to  remark,  however,  in  passing  that 
it  illustrates  as  well  as  any  other — better  perhaps  than 
any  other — the  peculiar  art  of  the  biblical  narrative 
to  which  we  have  referred  above.  If  any  one  at  the 
present  day  were  asked  to  decide  whether  a  woman 
placed  in  Ruth's  situation  would  act  rightly  in  leav- 
ing her  home  and  following  an  aged  mother-in-law 
to  a  distant  country,  how  many  pros  and  cons  would 
he  have  to  weigh  before  he  would  be  able  to  say  yes 


STORIES  FROM  THE  BIBLE.  141 

or  no  ?  Are  her  own  parents  still  living,  and  are 
they  so  situated  that  she  is  justified  in  leaving  them  ? 
Are  there  other  blood  relations  who  have  a  prior 
claim  on  her  ?  Has  she  raised  expectations  at  home 
which  she  ought  not  to  disappoint,  or  undertaken 
duties  which  ought  not  to  be  set  aside  in  deference 
to  a  sentiment  no  matter  how  noble  ?  Of  all  such 
side  issues  and  complications  of  duty  which  would 
render  a  decision  like  hers  difficult  in  modern  times, 
the  story  as  we  have  it  before  us  is  cleared.  All 
minor  traits  are  suppressed.  It  is  assumed  that  she 
has  a  right  to  go  if  she  pleases,  and  the  mind  is  left 
free  to  dwell,  unimpeded  by  any  counter-considera- 
tions, upon  the  beauty  of  her  choice.  This  choice 
derives  its  excellence  from  the  fact  that  it  was  per- 
fectly free.  There  was  no  tie  of  consanguinity  be- 
tween Naomi  and  her.  The  two  women  were  re- 
lated in  such  a  way  that  the  bond  might  either 
be  drawn  more  tightly  or  severed  without  blame. 
Orpah,  too,  pitied  her  mother-in-law.  She  w^ept,  but 
she  returned  to  her  home.  We  can  not,  on  that  ac- 
count, condemn  her.  It  was  not  her  bounden  duty  to 
go.  Euth,  on  the  other  hand,  might  perhaps  have 
satisfied  her  more  sensitive  conscience  by  accom- 
panying her  mother-in-law  as  far  as  Bethlehem,  and 
then  returning  to  Moab.  But  she  preferred  instead 
exile  and  the  hardships  of  a  life  among  strangers. 
Not  being  a  daughter,  she  freely  took  upon  herself 
the  duties  of  a  daughter ;  and  it  is  this  that  consti- 
tutes the  singular  merit  of  her  action.  In  telling 
the  story  it  is  best  to  follow  the  original  as  closely 


14:2       MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

as  possible.  "  Entreat  me  not  to  leave  thee,  nor  to 
desist  from  following  after  thee,  for  whither  thou 
goest,  I  will  go  ;  and  where  thou  lodgest,  I  wdll 
lodge  :  thy  people  shall  be  my  people :  where  thou 
diest  will  I  die  and  there  will  I  be  buried."  Where 
in  universal  literature  shall  we  find  words  more 
eloquent  of  tender  devotion  than  these  ?  It  will  be 
noticed  that  I  have  left  out  the  phrase  "and  thy  God 
shall  be  my  God  "  for  two  reasons.  No  matter  how 
much  we  may  love  another  person,  religious  con- 
victions ought  to  be  held  sacred.  We  have  no  right 
to  give  up  our  convictions  even  for  affection's  sake. 
Moreover,  the  words  correctly  understood  are  really 
nothing  but  an  amplification  of  what  has  preceded. 
The  language  of  Euth  refers  throughout  to  the 
jDroposed  change  of  country.  "  Whither  thou  goest, 
I  will  go  ;  w^here  thou  lodgest,  I  will  lodge  :  thy  folk 
shall  be  my  folk;  where  thou  diest,  I  will  die." 
And  the  phrase  "  Thy  God  shall  be  my  God  "  has 
the  same  meaning.  The  ancients  believed  that  every 
country  has  its  God,  and  to  say  "  Thy  God  shall 
be  my  God  "  was  tantamount  to  saying  "  Thy  coun- 
try shall  be  my  country."  It  is  better,  therefore,  to 
omit  these  words.  Were  we  to  retain  them,  the  im- 
pression might  be  created  that  Kuth  contemplated  a 
change  of  religion  merely  to  please  the  aged  Naomi, 
and  such  a  step  from  a  moral  point  of  view  would 
be  unwarrantable.  It  w^as  this  Gentile  woman  Ruth 
who  became  the  ancestress  of  the  royal  house  of 
David. 

The  story  of  David^s  life  is  replete  with  dra- 


STORIES  FROM  THE  BIBLE.  I43 

matic  interest.  It  may  be  arranged  in  a  series  of 
pictures.  First  picture  ;  David  and  Goliath — i.  e., 
skill  pitted  against  brute  strength,  or  the  deserved 
punishment  of  a  bully.  Every  boy  takes  comfort 
in  this  story.  Second  picture  :  David  and  Jonathan, 
their  arms  twined  about  each  other's  neck,  a  beauti- 
ful example  of  youthful  friendship.  Especially 
should  the  unselfishness  of  Jonathan  be  noted.  He, 
the  Hebrew  crown  prince,  so  far  from  being  jealous 
of  his  rival,  recognized  the  superior  qualities  of  the 
latter  and  served  him  with  the  most  generous  fidel- 
ity. Third  picture :  David  the  harper,  playing  be- 
fore the  gloomy,  moody  king,  whom  an  evil  spirit 
has  possessed.  It  should  be  noted  how  difiicult  is 
the  task  incumbent  upon  Jonathan  of  combining  his 
duty  to  his  father  and  his  affection  for  his  friend. 
Yet  he  fails  in  neither.  Fourth  picture  :  David's 
loyalty  manifest.  He  has  the  monarch  in  his  power 
in  the  camp,  in  the  cave,  and  proves  that  there  is  no 
evil  intention  in  his  mind.  The  words  of  Saul  are 
very  touching,  "  Is  it  thy  voice  I  hear,  my  son 
David  ? "  Fifth  picture :  the  battle,  the  tragical 
end  of  Saul  and  Jonathan.  The  dirge  of  David 
floats  above  the  field  :  "  The  beauty  of  Israel  is  slain 
upon  the  high  places.  How  are  the  miglity  fallen !  " 
etc.  A  second  series  of  pictures  now  begins.  David 
is  crowned  king,  first  by  his  clansmen,  then  by  the 
united  tribes.  David,  while  besieging  Bethlehem, 
is  athirst  and  there  is  no  w^ater.  Three  of  his 
soldiers  cut  their  way  to  the  well  near  the  gate, 
which  is  guarded  by  the  enemy,  and  bring  back  a 


144       MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

Clip  of  water.  He  refuses  it,  saying  :  '^  It  is  not 
water,  but  the  blood  of  the  men  who  have  risked 
their  lives  for  me."  Omitting  the  story  of  Bath- 
slieba,  we  come  next  to  the  rebellion  of  Absalom. 
The  incidents  of  this  rebellion  may  be  dej^icted  as 
follows  :  First,  Absalom  in  his  radiant  beauty  at  the 
feast  of  the  sheep-shearer.  Next,  Absalom  at  the 
gate  playing  the  demagogue,  secretly  inciting  the 
people  to  revolt.  Next,  David  ascending  Mount  Oli- 
vet weeping,  the  base  Shimei,  going  along  a  parallel 
ridge,  flinging  stones  at  the  king  and  reviling  him. 
David  remarks  :  "  If  my  own  son  seek  my  life,  how 
shall  I  be  angry  with  this  Benjamite  ? "  Next,  the 
death  of  Absalom  in  the  wood.  Finally,  David  at 
the  gate  receiving  the  news  of  Absalom's  death,  and 
breaking  forth  into  the  piercing  cry  :  ''  O  my  son 
Absalom,  my  son,  my  son  Absalom !  would  God  I 
had  died  for  thee !  O  Absalom,  my  son,  my  son !  " 
It  is  the  story  of  a  rebellious  and  undutiful  child, 
and  illustrates  by  contrast  the  unfathomable  depth 
of  a  father's  love,  of  a  love  that  yearns  even  over 
the  wicked,  over  the  lost. 

The  points  of  the  stories  included  in  the  David 
cycle  are  :  skill  and  courage  triumphant  over  brirte 
strength,  unselfish  friendship,  loyalty,  a  leader's 
generosity  toward  his  followers,  and  parental  love. 
The  arrangement  of  the  words  in  the  lament  of 
David  for  his  son  deserves  to  be  specially  noted. 
It  corresponds  to  and  vividly  describes  the  rhythmic 
movements  of  the  emotions  excited  by  great  sorrow. 
From  the  life  of  Solomon  we  select  only  the  judg- 


STORIES  FROM  THE  BIBLE.  145 

ment,  related  in  I  Kings,  iii.  We  may  compare 
with  it  a  similar  story,  showing,  however,  interesting 
variations,  in  the  Jataka  tales. 

With  this  our  selections  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment narrative  come  to  an  end.  The  ideal  types  are 
exhausted,  and  the  figures  which  now  appear  upon 
the  scene  stand  before  us  in  the  dry  light  of  history. 

From  the  New  Testament  we  select  for  the 
primary  course  the  story  of  the  Good  Samaritan,  as 
illustrative  of  true  charity.  Selected  passages  from 
the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  may  also  be  explained 
and  committed  to  memory.  The  Beatitudes,  how- 
ever, and  the  parables  lie  outside  our  present  limits, 
presupposing  as  they  do  a  depth  of  spiritual  experi- 
ence which  is  lacking  in  children. 

Note. — It  should  be  remembered  that  the  above  selections 
have  been  made  with  a  view  to  their  being  included  in  a  course 
of  unsectarian  moral  instruction.  Such  a  course  must  not  ex- 
press the  religious  tenets  of  any  sect  or  denomination.  Much  that 
has  here  been  omitted,  however,  can  be  taught  in  the  Sunday- 
schools,  the  existence  of  which  alongside  of  the  daily  schools  is, 
as  I  have  said,  presupposed  in  these  lectures.  I  have  simply 
tried  to  cull  the  moral  meaning  of  the  stories,  leaving,  as  I  be- 
lieve, the  way  open  for  divergent  religious  interpretations  of  the 
same  stories.  But  I  realize  that  the  religious  teacher  may 
claim  the  Bible  wholly  for  his  own,  and  may  not  be  willing 
to  share  even  a  part  of  its  treasure  with  the  moral  teacher.  If 
this  be  so,  then  these  selections  from  the  Bible,  for  the  present, 
at  all  events,  will  have  to  be  omitted.  They  can,  nevertheless, 
be  used  by  judicious  parents,  and  some  if  not  all  of  the  sugges- 
tions they  contain  may  prove  acceptable  to  teachers  of  Sunday 
schools. 


10 


X. 

THE   ODYSSEY  AND   THE  ILIAD. 

As  we  leave  the  field  of  biblical  literature  and 
turn  to  the  classic  epic  of  Greece,  a  new  scene 
spreads  out  before  us,  new  forms  and  faces  crowd 
around  us,  we  breathe  a  different  atmosphere. 

The  poems  of  Homer  among  the  Greeks  oc- 
cupied a  place  in  many  respects  similar  to  that  of 
the  Bible  among  the  Hebrews.  At  Athens  there 
was  a  special  ordinance  that  the  Homeric  poems 
should  be  recited  once  every  fourth  year  at  the 
great  Panathenaic  festival.  On  this  occasion  the 
rhapsode,  standing  on  an  elevated  platform,  arrayed 
in  rich  robes,  with  a  golden  wreath  about  his  head, 
addressed  an  audience  of  many  thousands.  The 
poems  were  made  the  subject  of  mystical,  allegori- 
cal, and  rationalistic  interpretation,  precisely  as  was 
the  case  with  the  text  of  the  Bible.  As  late  as  the 
first  century  of  our  era,  the  first  book  placed  in 
the  hands  of  children,  the  book  from  which  they 
learned  to  read  and  write,  was  Homer.  Xenophon 
in  the  Symposium  has  one  of  the  guests  say :  "  My 
father,  anxious  that  I  should  become  a  good  man, 
made  me  learn  all  the  poems  of  Homer,  and  now 

(146) 


THE  ODYSSEY  AND  THE  ILIAD.  147 

I  could  repeat  the  whole  Iliad  and  Odyssey  by 
heart."  * 

We  shall  not  go  quite  to  the  same  length  as 
Xenophon.  We  should  hardly  think  it  sufficient 
in  order  to  make  a  good  man  of  a  boy  to  place 
Homer  in  his  hands.  But  we  do  believe  that  the 
knowledge  of  the  Homeric  poems,  introduced  at  the 
right  time  and  in  the  right  way,  will  contribute  to 
such  a  result. 

Let  us,  however,  examine  more  closely  in  what 
the  value  of  these  poems  consists. 

Ulysses  is  the  hero  of  the  Odyssey,  Achilles  of  the 
Iliad.  Ulysses  is  pre-eminently  the  type  of  resource- 
ful intelligence,  Achilles  of  valor.  In  what  way 
will  these  types  appeal  to  our  pupils  ?  As  the  boy  de- 
velops beyond  the  early  period  of  childhood,  there 
shows  itself  in  him  a  spirit  of  adventure.  This  has 
been  noticed  by  all  careful  educators.  Now,  there 
is  a  marked  diiference  between  the  spirit  of  adven- 
ture and  the  spirit  of  play.  Play  consists  in  the  free 
exercise  of  our  faculties.  Its  characteristic  mark 
is  the  absence  of  taxing  effort.  The  child  is  said  to 
be  at  play  when  it  frolics  in  the  grass,  w^lien  it  leaps 
or  runs  a  race,  or  when  it  imitates  the  doings  of  its 
elders.  As  soon,  however,  as  the  exertion  required 
in  carrying  on  a  game  becomes  appreciable,  the 
game  is  converted  into  a  task  and  loses  its  charm. 
The  spirit  of  adventure,  on  the  contrary,  is  called 
forth  by  obstacles;  it  delights  in  the  prospect  of 

*  See  Jebb's  Introduction  to  Homer. 


148        MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

diflScnlties  to  be  overcome ;  it  is  the  sign  of  a  fresh 
and  apparently  boundless  energy,  which  has  not  yet 
been  taught  its  limitations  by  the  rough  contact  with 
realities.  The  spirit  of  adventure  begins  to  develop 
in  children  when  the  home  life  no  longer  entirely 
contents  them,  when  they  wish  to  be  freed  from  the 
constraint  of  dependence  on  others,  when  it  seems  to 
them  as  if  the  whole  world  lay  open  to  them  and  they 
could  dare  and  do  almost  anything.  It  is  at  this  time 
that  children  love  to  read  tales  of  travel,  and  espe- 
cially tales  of  the  sea,  of  shipwreck,  and  hair-breadth 
escapes,  of  monsters  slain  by  dauntless  heroes,  of 
rescue  and  victory,  no  matter  how  improbable  or 
impossible  the  means.  Now  success  in  such  advent- 
ures depends  largely  on  courage.  And  it  is  good 
for  children  to  have  examples  even  of  physical 
courage  set  before  them,  provided  it  be  not  brutal. 
The  craven  heart  ought  to  be  despised.  Mere  good 
intentions  ought  not  to  count.  Unless  one  has  the 
resolute  will,  the  fearless  soul,  that  can  face  diffi- 
culties and  danger  without  flinching,  he  will  never 
be  able  to  do  a  man's  work  in  the  world.  This 
lesson  should  be  imprinted  early.  A  second  prereq- 
uisite of  success  is  presence  of  mind,  or  what  has 
been  called  above  resourceful  intelligence.  And 
this  quality  is  closely  allied  with  the  former.  Pres- 
ence of  mind  is  the  result  of  bravery.  The  mind  will 
act  even  in  perilous  situations  if  it  be  not  paralyzed 
by  fear.  It  is  fear  that  causes  the  wheels  of 
thought  to  stop.  If  one  can  only  keep  oil  the  clog 
of  fear,  the  mind  will  go  on  revolving  and  often 


THE   ODYSSEY  AND  THE  ILIAD.  149 

find  a  way  of  escape  where  there  seemed  none.  Be 
not  a  coward,  be  brave  and  clear-headed  in  the 
midst  of  peril — these  are  lessons  the  force  of  which 
is  appreciated  by  the  growing  pupil.  The  Iliad  and 
Odyssey  teach  them  on  every  page. 

Bravery  and  presence  of  mind,  it  is  true,  are 
commonly  regarded  as  worldly,  rather  than  as,  in  the 
strict  sense,  moral  qualities.  However  that  may  be 
— and  I,  for  one,  am  inclined  to  rank  true  courage 
and  true  presence  of  mind  among  the  highest  mani- 
festations of  the  moral  nature — these  qualities  when 
they  show  themselves  in  the  young  soon  exert  a 
favorable  influence  on  the  whole  character,  and 
serve  especially  to  transform  the  attitude  of  the  child 
toward  its  parents.  Hitherto  the  young  child  has 
been  content  to  be  the  mere  recipient  of  favors ; 
as  soon  as  the  new  consciousness  of  strength,  the 
new  sense  of  independence  and  manliness  has  de- 
veloped, the  son  begins  to  feel  that  he  would  like  to 
give  to  his  parents  as  well  as  to  receive  from  them  ; 
to  be  of  use  to  his  father,  and  to  confer  benefits,  as 
far  as  he  is  able,  in  the  shape  of  substantial  services. 
These  remarks  will  find  their  application  in  the 
analysis  of  the  Odyssey,  which  we  shall  presently 
attempt. 

The  Odyssey  is  a  tale  of  the  sea.  Ulysses  is  the 
type  of  sagacity,  as  well  as  of  bravery,  his  mind  teems 
with  inventions.  In  the  boy  Telemachus  we  behold 
a  son  struggling  to  cut  loose  from  his  mother's  lead- 
ing-strings, and  laudably  ambitious  to  be  of  use  to  his 
parents.     In  the  Odyssey  we  gain  a  distinct  advance 


150       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

upon  the  moral  results  obtained  from  the  study  of 
the  biblical  stories.  In  the  Bible  it  is  chiefly  the  love 
of  parents  for  their  children  which  is  dwelt  upon, 
in  the  Odyssey  the  devotion  of  children  to  their 
parents ;  and  this,  of  course,  marks  a  later  stage.  In 
the  Odyssey,  too,  the  conjugal  relation  comes  into 
the  foreground.  In  the  Bible,  the  love  of  the  hus- 
band for  his  wife  is  repeatedly  touched  upon.  But 
the  love  of  the  wife  for  the  husband  is  not  equally 
emphasized,  and  the  relations  between  the  two  do  not 
receive  particular  attention.  The  joint  authority  of 
both  parents  over  their  children  is  the  predominant 
fact,  the  delicate  bonds  of  feeling  which  subsist  be- 
tween the  parents  themselves  are  not  in  view.  And 
this  again  corresponds  to  the  earlier  stage  of  child- 
hood. The  young  child  perceives  the  joint  love 
which  father  and  mother  bear  toward  it,  and  feels 
the  joint  authority  which  they  exercise  over  it.  But 
as  the  child  grows  up,  its  eyes  are  opened  to  per- 
ceive more  clearly  the  love  w^hich  the  parents  bear 
to  one  another,  and  its  affection  for  both  is  fed 
and  the  desire  to  serve  them  is  strengthened  by 
this  new  insight.  Thus  it  is  in  the  Odyssey.  The 
yearning  of  Ulysses  for  his  wife,  the  fidelity  of 
Penelope  during  twenty  years  of  separation,  are  the 
leading  theme  of  the  narrative,  and  the  effect  of 
this  love  upon  their  son  is  apparent  throughout 
the  poem. 

Let  us  now  consider  the  ethical  elements  of  the 
Odyssey  in  some  detail,  arranging  them  under  sepa- 
rate heads. 


THE  ODYSSEY  AND  THE  ILIAD.  151 

1.  Conjugal  affection.  Ulysses  has  been  for  seven 
years  a  prisoner  in  the  cave  of  Calypso.  The 
nymph  of  the  golden  hair  offers  him  the  gift  of 
immortality  if  he  will  consent  to  be  her  husband, 
but  he  is  proof  against  her  blandishments,  and  asks 
for  nothing  but  to  be  dismissed,  so  that  he  may 
see  his  dear  home  and  hold  his  own  true  wife  once 
more  in  his  arms. 

*'  Apart  upon  the  shore  , 

He  sat  and  sorrowed.    And  oft  in  tears 
And  sighs  and  vain  repinings  passed  the  hours, 
Gazing  with  wet  eyes  on  the  barren  deep."  * 

I  would  remark  that,  as  the  poem  is  too  long  to 
be  read  through  entirely,  and  as  there  are  passages 
in  it  which  should  be  omitted,  it  is  advisable  for 
the  teacher  to  narrate  the  story,  quoting,  however, 
such  passages  as  give  point  to  the  narrative  or  have 
a  special  beauty  of  their  own.  Read  the  description 
of  Calypso's  cave  v,  73,  ff.  Penelope  meantime  is 
patiently  awaiting  her  husband's  return.  Read  the 
passages  which  describe  her  great  beauty,  especially 
that  lovely  word-picture  in  which  she  is  described 
as  standing  by  a  tall  column  in  the  hall,  a  maid  on 
either  side,  a  veil  hiding  her  lustrous  face,  while  she 
addresses  the  suitors.  The  noblest  princes  of  Ithaca 
and  the  surrounding  isles  entreat  her  hand  in  mar- 
riage, and,  thinking  that  Ulysses  will  never  return, 
hold  high  revels  in  his  house,  and  shamelessly  con- 

*  The  quotations  are  taken  from  Bryant's  translation  of  the 
Odyssey. 


152       MORAL   INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

Slime  Ills  wealth.  Kead  the  passage  ii,  116-160, 
describing  Penelope's  device  to  put  off  the  suitors, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  avert  the  danger  which 
would  have  threatened  her  son  in  case  she  had  openly 
broken  with  the  chiefs.  The  love  of  Penelope  is 
further  set  vividly  before  us  by  many  delicate 
touches.  Every  stranger  who  arrives  in  Ithaca  is 
hospitably  entertained  by  the  queen,  and  loaded 
with  gifts,  in  the  hope  that  he  may  bring  her  some 
news  of  her  absent  lord,  and  often  she  is  deceived 
by  wretches  who  speculate  on  her  credulous  grief. 
See  the  passage  xivj  155.  During  the  day  she  is 
busy  with  her  household  cares,  overseeing  her  maids, 
and  seeking  to  divert  her  mind  by  busy  occupation ; 
but  at  night  the  silence  and  the  solitude  become  in- 
tolerable, and  she  weeps  her  eyes  out  on  her  lonely 
couch.  How  the  love  of  Penelope  influences  her 
boy,  who  was  a  mere  babe  when  his  father  left  for 
Troy,  how  the  whole  atmosphere  of  the  house  is 
charged  with  the  sense  of  expectancy  of  the  master's 
return,  is  shown  in  the  passage  ii,  439,  where  Telem- 
achus  says : 

"  Nurse,  let  sweet  wine  be  drawn  into  my  jars,  , 

The  finest  next  to  that  which  thou  dost  keep, 
Expecting  our  unhappy  lord,  if  yet 
The  nobly  born  Ulysses  shall  escape 
^he  doom  of  death  and  come  to  us  again." 

The  best  cheer,  the  finest  wine,  the  best  of  every- 
thing is  kept  ready  against  the  father's  home-corning, 
which  may  be  looked  for  any  day,  if  haply  he  has 
escaped  the  doom  of  death.     There  is  one  passage 


THE  ODYSSEY  AND  THE  ILIAD.  153 

in  which  we  might  suspect  that  the  poet  has  in- 
tended to  show  the  hardening  effect  of  grief  on 
Penelope's  character,  xv,  479.  Penelope  does  not 
speak  to  her  old  servants  any  more ;  she  passes  them 
by  without  a  word,  apparently  without  seeing  them. 
She  does  not  attend  to  their  wants  as  she  used  to  do, 
and  they,  in  turn,  do  not  dare  to  address  her.  But 
we  may  forgive  this  seeming  indifference  inas- 
much as  it  only  shows  how  completely  she  is 
absorbed  by  her  sorrow. 

A  companion  picture  to  the  love  of  Ulysses  and 
Penelope  is  to  be  found  in  the  conjugal  relation  of 
Alcinous,  king  of  Phseacia,  and  his  wife  Arete,  as 
described  in  the  sixth  book  and  the  following.  This 
whole  episode  is  incomparably  beautiful.  Was  there 
ever  a  more  perfect  embodiment  of  girlish  grace  and 
modesty,  coupled  with  sweetest  frankness,  than  Nau- 
sicaa  ?  And  what  a  series  of  lovely  pictures  is  made 
to  pass  in  quick  succession  before  our  eyes  as  we 
read  the  story  !  First,  Nausicaa,  moved  by  the  de- 
sire to  prepare  her  wedding  garments  against  her 
unknown  lover's  coming,  not  ashamed  to  acknowl- 
edge the  motive  to  her  own  pure  heart,  but  veil- 
ing it  discreetly  before  her  mother ;  then  the  band 
of  maidens  setting  out  upon  their  picnic  party, 
JSTausicaa  holding  the  reins  ;  next  the  washing  of 
the  garments,  the  bath,  the  game  of  ball,  the 
sudden  appearance  of  Ulysses,  the  flight  of  her 
companions,  the  brave  girl  being  left  to  keep  her 
place  alone,  with  a  courage  born  of  pity  for  the 
stranger,  and  of  virtuous  womanhood. 


154       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

"  Alone 
The  daughter  of  Alcinous  kept  her  place, 
For  Pallas  gave  her  courage  and  forbade 
Her  limb  to  tremble.    So  she  waited  there." 

"Who  that  has  inhaled  the  fragrance  of  her  pres- 
ence from  these  pages  can  ever  forget  the  white- 
armed  ISTausicaa !  Tlien  follows  the  picture  of  the 
palace,  a  feast  for  the  imagination,  the  most  magnifi- 
cent description,  I  think,  in  the  whole  poem. 

"  For  on  every  side  beneath 
The  lofty  roof  of  that  magnanimous  king 
A  glory  shone  as  of  the  summer  moons." 

Eead  from  1.  100-128,  book  vii.  Next  we 
witness  the  splendid  hospitality  proffered  to  the 
stranger  guest.  For  again  and  again  in  this  poem 
the  noble  sentiment  is  repeated,  that  the  stranger 
and  the  poor  are  sent  from  Jove.  Then  we  see 
Ulysses  engaged  in  the  games,  outdoing  the  rest,  or 
standing  aside  and  watching  ''the  twinkle  of  the 
dancer's  feet."  The  language,  too,  used  on  these 
occasions  is  strikingly  noble,  so  courteous  and  well- 
chosen,  so  simple  and  dignified,  conveying  rich  mean- 
ings in  the  fewest  possible  words.  What  can  be 
finer,  e.  g.,  than  Nausicaa's  farewell  to  Ulysses  ? 

"  Now,  when  the  maids 
Had  seen  him  bathed,  and  had  anointed  him 
With  oil,  and  put  his  sumptuous  mantle  on, 
And  tunic,  forth  he  issued  from  the  bath. 
And  came  to  those  who  sat  before  their  wine. 
Nausicaa,  goddess-like  in  beauty,  stood 
Beside  a  pillar  of  that  noble  roof. 
And,  looking  on  Ulysses  as  he  passed, 


THE  ODYSSEY  AND  THE  ILIAD.  155 

Admired,  and  said  to  him  in  winged  words — 
*  Stranger,  farewell,  and  in  thy  native  land 
Remember  thou  hast  owed  thy  life  to  me.' " 

Nausicaa,  it  is  evident,  loves  Ulysses ;  she  stands 
beside  a  pillar,  a  favorite  attitude  for  beautiful 
women  with  Homer,  and  as  Ulysses  passes,  she 
addresses  to  him  those  few  words  so  fraught  with 
tenderness  and  renunciation.  Ulysses's  own  sj^eech 
to  Arete,  too,  is  a  model  of  simplicity  and  dignity, 
possessing,  it  seems  to  me,  something  of  the  same 
quality  which  we  admire  in  the  speeches  of  Othello. 
But  throughout  this  narrative,  pre-eminent  above  all 
the  other  figures  in  it  is  the  figure  of  the  queen  her- 
self, of  Arete.  Such  a  daughter  as  ISTausicaa  could 
only  come  from  such  a  mother.  To  her  Ulysses  is 
advised  to  address  his  supplication.  She  is  the  wise 
matron,  the  peace-maker  who  composes  the  angry 
feuds  of  the  men.  And  she  possesses  the  whole 
heart  and  devotion  of  her  husband. 

"  Her  Alcinous  made  his  wife 
And  honored  her  as  nowhere  else  on  earth 
Is  any  woman  honored  who  bears  charge 
Over  a  husband's  household.    From  their  hearts 
Her  children  pay  her  reverence,  and  the  king 
And  all  the  people,  for  they  look  on  her 
As  if  she  were  a  goddess.    When  she  goes 
Abroad  into  the  streets,  all  welcome  her 
With  acclamations.     Never  does  she  fail 
In  wise  discernment,  but  decides  disputes 
Kindly  and  justly  between  man  and  man. 
And  if  thou  gain  her  favor  there  is  hope 
That  thou  mayst  see  thy  friends  once  more." 


156       MORAL   INSTRUCTION  OP  CHILDREN. 

We  have  then  as  illustrations  of  conjugal  fidelity : 
the  main  picture,  Ulysses  and  Penelope ;  the  com- 
panion picture,  Alcinous  and  Arete ;  and,  as  a  foil  to 
set  off  both,  there  looms  up  every  now  and  then  in 
the  course  of  the  poem,  that  unhappy  pair,  Aga- 
memnon and  Clytemnestra,  the  latter,  the  type  of 
conjugal  infidelity,  from  which  the  soul  of  Homer 
revolts.  This  foil  is  very  skillfully  used.  At 
the  very  end  of  the  poem,  when  everything  is 
hastening  toward  a  happy  consummation,  Ulysses 
having  slain  the  suitors  and  being  about  to  be  re- 
united with  his  wife,  we  are  introduced  into  the 
world  of  shades,  where  the  ghost  of  Agamemnon 
once  more  rehearses  the  story  of  Clytemnestra's 
treachery.  At  that  moment  the  spirits  of  the  suitors 
come  flying  down  to  Hades,  and  the  happier  destiny 
of  Ulysses  is  thus  brought  into  clearer  relief  by 
contrast. 

The  next  ethical  element  of  which  I  have  to 
speak  is  the  filial  conduct  of  Telemachus.  In  him 
the  spirit  of  adventure  has  developed  into  a  desire 
to  help  his  father.  In  the  early  part  of  the  poem 
he  announces  that  he  is  now  a  child  no  longer.  He 
begins  to  assert  authority.  And  yet  in  his  home  he 
continues  to  be  treated  as  a  child.  The  suitors 
laugh  at  him,  his  own  mother  can  not  bear  to  think 
that  he  should  go  out  into  the  wide  world  alone,  and 
the  news  of  his  departure  is  accordingly  concealed 
from  her.  Yery  fine  are  the  words  in  which  her 
mother's  love  expresses  itself  when  she  discovers  his 
absence : 


THE  ODYSSEY  AND  THE  ILIAD.  I57 

"  And  her  knees  failed  her  and  her  heart 
Sank  as  she  heard.    Long  time  she  could  not  speak ; 
Her  eyes  were  filled  with  tears,  and  her  clear  voice 
Was  choked ;  yet,  finding  words  at  length,  she  said : 
*  0  herald !  wherefore  should  my  son  have  gone  ? ' 

"...  Now,  my  son, 
My  best  beloved,  goes  to  sea — a  boy 
Unused  to  hardship  and  unskilled  to  deal 
With  strangers.    More  1  sorrow  for  his  sake 
Than  for  his  father's.    I  am  filled  with  fear." 

She  lies  outstretched  upon  the  floor  of  her  chamber 
overcome  with  grief  (iv,  910).  Telemachus,  how- 
ever, has  gone  forth  in  search  of  his  sire.  He  finds 
a  friend  in  Pisistratus,  the  son  of  Nestor,  and  the 
two  youths  join  company  on  the  journey.  They 
come  to  the  court  of  Menelaus,  King  of  Sparta. 
There,  as  everywhere,  Telemachus  hears  men  speak 
of  his  great  father  in  terms  of  the  highest  admira- 
tion and  praise,  and  the  desire  mounts  in  his  soul  to 
do  deeds  worthy  of  such  a  parent.  What  better 
stimulation  can  we  offer  to  growing  children  than  this 
recital  of  Telemachus's  development  from  boyhood 
into  manhood  ?  His  reception  at  the  court  of  Mene- 
laus affords  an  opportunity  to  dwell  again  upon  the 
generous  and  delicate  hospitality  of  the  ancient 
Greeks. .  First,  the  guest  is  received  at  the  gates ; 
then  conducted  to  the  bath  and  anointed ;  then, 
when  he  is  seated  on  a  silver  or  perchance  a  golden 
throne,  a  handmaiden  advances  with  a  silver  ewer 
and  a  golden  jug  to  pour  water  on  his  hands ;  then  a 
noble  banquet  is  set  out  for  his  delectation ;  and  only 
then,  after  all  these  rites  of  hospitality  have  been  com- 


158       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

pleted,  is  inquiry  made  as  to  "his  name  and  his  errand. 
"  The  stranger  and  the  poor  are  sent  from  Jove." 
The  stranger  and  the  poor  were  welcome  in  the 
Grecian  house.  Telemachus  returns  to  Ithaca,  es- 
capes the  ambush  which  the  murderous  suitors  had 
set  for  him,  and  arrives  just  in  time  to  help  his 
father  in  his  last  desperate  struggle.  It  is  he, 
Telemachus,  who  conveys  the  weapons  from  the 
hall,  he  who  pinions  the  treacherous  Melantheus 
and  renders  him  harmless.  He  quits  himself 
like  a  man — discreet,  able  to  keep  his  counsel, 
and  brave  and  quick  in  the  moment  of  decisive 
action. 

The  third  element  which  attracts  our  attention 
is  the  resourceful  intelligence  of  Ulysses,  or  his 
presence  of  mind  amid  danger.  This  is  exhibited 
on  many  occasions ;  for  instance,  in  the  cave  of 
Polyphemus;  where  he  saves  his  companions  by 
concealing  them  in  the  fleece  of  the  giant's  flock, 
and  at  the  time  of  the  great  shipwreck,  before  he 
reaches  Phseacia.  His  raft  is  shattered,  and  he  is 
plunged  into  the  sea.  He  clings  to  one  of  the  frag- 
ments of  the  wreck,  but  from  this  too  is  dislodged. 
For  two  days  and  nights  he  struggles  in  the  black, 
stormy  waters.  At  last  he  approaches  the  shore, 
but  is  nearly  dashed  to  pieces  on  the  rocks.  He 
swims  again  out  to  sea,  until,  finding  himself  oppo- 
site the  mouth  of  a  river,  he  strikes  out  for  this  and 
lands  in  safety.  Pallas  Athene  has  guided  him.  But 
Pallas  Athene  is  only  another  name  for  his  own  cour- 
age and  presence  of  mind.     In  the  same  connection 


THE   ODYSSEY  AND  THE  ILIAD.  159 

may  be  related  the  story  of  Ulysses's  escape  from 
the  Sirens  and  from  the  twin  perils  of  Scylla  and 
Charybdis.  The  Sirens,  with  their  bewitching  songs, 
seek  to  lure  him  and  his  companions  to  destruction. 
But  he  stops  the  ears  of  his  companions  with  ^vax  so 
that  they  can  not  hear,  and  causes  himself  to  be  bound 
with  stout  cords  to  the  mast,  so  that,  though  he  may 
hear,  he  can  not  follow.  There  is  an  obvious  lesson 
contained  in  this  allegory.  When  about  to  be  ex- 
posed to  temptation,  if  you  know  that  you  are  w^eak, 
do  not  even  listen  to  the  seductive  voices.  But  no 
matter  how  strong  you  believe  yourself  to  be,  at 
least  give  such  pledges  and  place  yourself  in  such 
conditions  that  you  may  be  prevented  from  yield- 
ing. From  the  monster  Charybdis,  too,  Ulysses 
escapes  by  extraordinary  presence  of  mind  and 
courage.  He  leaps  upward  to  catch  the  iig-tree 
in  the  moment  when  his  ship  disappears  beneath 
him  in  the  whirlpool ;  then,  w^hen  it  is  cast  up 
again,  lets  go  his  hold  and  is  swept  out  into  safe 
waters. 

The  fourth  ethical  element  which  we  select  from 
the  poem  is  the  veneration  shown  to  grandparents, 
I  have  already  remarked,  in  a  former  lecture,  that 
if  parents  wish  to  retain  the  reverence  of  their  chil- 
dren they  can  not  do  better  than  in  their  turn  to 
show  themselves  reverent  toward  their  own  aged 
and  enfeebled  parents.  Of  such  conduct  the  Odyssey 
offers  us  a  number  of  choice  examples.  Thus 
Achilles,  meeting  Ulysses  in  the  realm  of  shades, 
says  that  the  hardest  part  of  his  lot  is  to  think  of 


160       MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

his  poor  old  father,  who  has  no  one  now  to  defend 
him,  and  who,  being  weak,  is  hkely  to  be  neglected 
and  despised.  If  only  he,  the  strong  son,  conld  re- 
turn to  the  light  of  day,  how  he  would  protect  his 
aged  parent  and  insure  him  the  respect  due  to  his 
gray  hairs !  Penelope  is  advised  to  send  to  Laertes, 
Telemachus's  grandfather,  to  secure  his  aid  against 
the  suitors.  But  with  delicate  consideration  she 
keeps  the  bad  news  from  him,  saying :  "  He  has 
enough  grief  to  bear  on  account  of  the  loss  of  his 
son  Ulysses  ;  let  me  not  add  to  his  burden."  Again, 
how  beautiful  is  the  account  of  the  meeting  of  La- 
ertes and  Ulysses  after  the  return  and  triumph  of 
the  latter.  On  the  farm,  at  some  distance  from  the 
town,  Ulysses  seeks  his  aged  father.  Laertes  is  busy 
digging.  He,  a  king,  wears  a  peasant's  rustic  garb 
and  lives  a  life  of  austere  self-denial,  grieving  night 
and  day  for  his  absent  son.  When  Ulysses  men- 
tions his  name,  Laertes  at  first  does  not  believe. 
Then  the  hero  approaches  the  bent  and  decrepit  old 
man,  and  becomes  for  the  moment  a  child  again. 
He  brings  up  recollections  of  his  earliest  boyhood  ; 
he  reminds  his  father  of  the  garden-patch  which  he 
set  aside  for  him  long,  long  ago ;  of  the  trees  and 
vines  which  he  gave  him  to  plant;  and  then  the 
father  realizes  that  the  mighty  man  before  him  is 
indeed  his  son. 

The  structural  lines  of  the  Odyssey  are  clearly 
marked,  and  can  easily  be  followed.  First,  we  are 
shown  the  house  of  Ulysses  bereft  of  its  master. 
The  noisy  crowd  of  suitors  are  carousing  in  the  hall ; 


THE  ODYSSEY  AND   THE  ILIAD.  1^1 

the  despairing  Penelope  weaves  her  web  in  an 
upper  chamber ;  the  resolve  to  do  and  dare  for  his 
father's  sake  awakens  in  Telemachus's  heart.  Next 
Ulysses  on  the  way  home,  dismissed  by  Calypso, 
arrives  at  Phseacia,  from  which  port  without  fur- 
ther misadventures  he  reaches  Ithaca.  The  stay  in 
the  palace  of  the  Phseacian  king  gives  an  oppor- 
tunity for  a  rehearsal  of  the  previous  sufferings  and 
adventures  of  the  hero.  Then  follow  the  prepara- 
tions for  the  conflict  with  the  suitors ;  the  appear- 
ance of  Ulysses  in  his  own  palace  in  the  guise  of  a 
beggar;  the  insults  and  blows  which  he  receives 
at  the  hands  of  his  rivals  and  their  menials;  the 
bloody  fight,  etc.  In  relating  the  story  I  should 
follow  the  course  of  the  poem,  laying  stress  upon 
the  ethical  elements  enumerated  above.  The  fight 
which  took  place  in  the  palace  halls  witli  closed 
doors  should  be  merely  mentioned,  its  bloody  details 
omitted.  The  hanging  of  the  maidens,  the  trick  of 
Vulcan  related  in  a  previous  book,  and  other  minor 
episodes,  which  the  teacher  will  distinguish  with- 
out diflSculty,  should  likewise  be  passed  over.  The 
recognition  scenes  are  managed  with  wonderful 
skill.  The  successive  recognitions  seem  to  take 
place  inversely  in  the  order  of  previous  connection 
and  intimacy  with  Ulysses.  The  son,  who  was  a 
mere  babe  when  his  father  left  and  did  not  know 
him  at  all,  recognizes  him  first.  This,  moreover, 
is  necessary  in  order  that  his  aid  may  be  secured 
for  the  coming  struggle.  Next  comes  Argus,  the 
dog.  ^^ 


162       iMORAL   INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

"  While  over  Argus  the  black  night  of  death 
Came  suddenly  as  he  had  seen 
Ulysses,  absent  now  for  twenty  years." 

Next  comes  the  iinrse  Euryeleia,  who  recognizes 
him  by  a  scar  inflicted  by  the  white  tusk  of  a  boar 
whom  he  hunted  on  Parnassus's  heights ;  then  his 
faithful  followers ;  last  of  all,  and  slowly  and  with 
difiiculty,  the  wife  who  had  so  yearned  for  him. 
Her  impetuous  son  could  not  understand  her  tardi- 
ness. Vehemently  he  chid  her:  "Mother,  unfeel- 
ing mother,  how  canst  thou  remain  aloof,  how  keep 
from  taking  at  my  father's  side  thy  place  to  talk  with 
him  and  question  him  ?  Mother,  thy  heart  is  harder 
than  a  stone."  But  she  only  sat  opposite  to  Ulysses 
and  gazed  and  gazed  and  wondered.  Ulysses  himself, 
at  last,  in  despair  at  her  impenetrable  silence,  ex- 
claimed, "  An  iron  heart  is  hers."  But  it  was  only 
that  she  could  not  believe.  It  seemed  so  incredible 
to  her  that  the  long  waiting  should  be  over;  that 
the  desire  of  her  heart  should  really  be  fulfilled ; 
that  this  man  before  her  should  be  indeed  the  hus- 
band, the  long-lost  husband,  and  not  a  mocking 
dream.  But  when  at  last  it  dawned  upon  her,  when 
he  gave  her  the  token  of  the  mystery  known  only 
to  him  and  to  her,  then  indeed  the  ice  of  incredulity 
melted  from  her  heart,  and  her  knees  faltered  and 
the  tears  streamed  from  her  eyes,  "  and  she  rose  and 
ran  to  him  and  flung  her  arm  about  his  neck  and 
kissed  his  brow,  and  he,  too,  wept  as  in  his  arms  he 
held  his  dearly  loved  and  faithful  wife."  "As  wel- 
come as  the  land  to  those  who  swim  the  deep,  tossed 


THE  ODYSSEY   AND  THE  ILIAD.  163 

bj  the  billow  and  the  blast,  and  few  are  those  who 
from  the  hoary  ocean  reach  the  shore,  their  limbs  all 
crested  w^ith  the  brine,  these  gladly  climb  the  sea- 
beach  and  are  safe — so  welcome  was  her  husband  to 
her  eves,  nor  would  her  fair  white  arms  release  his 
neck." 

And  so  with  the  words  uttered  by  the  shade  of 
Agamemnon  we  may  fitly  close  this  retrospect  of 
the  poem  : 

"  Son  of  Laertes,  fortunate  and  wise, 
Ulysses !  thou  by  feats  of  eminent  might 
And  valor  dost  possess  thy  wife  again. 
And  nobly  minded  is  thy  blameless  queen, 
The  daughter  of  Icarius,  faithfully 
Remembering  him  to  whom  she  gave  her  troth 
While  yet  a  virgin.    Never  shall  the  fame 
Of  his  great  valor  perish,  and  the  gods 
Themselves  shall  frame,  for  those  who  dwell  on  earth, 
Sweet  strains  in  praise  of  sage  Penelope." 

Well  might  the  rhapsodes  in  the^  olden  days,  clad 
in  embroidered  robes,  wdth  golden  wreaths  about 
their  brows,  recite  such  verses  as  these  to  the  assem- 
bled thousands  and  ten  thousands.  Well  might  the 
Hellenic  race  treasure  these  records  of  filial  loyalty, 
of  maiden  purity,  of  wifely  tenderness  and  fidelity, 
of  bravery,  and  of  intelligence.  And  w^ell  may  w^e, 
too,  desire  that  this  golden  stream  flowing  down 
to  us  from  ancient  Greece  shall  enter  the  cur- 
rent of  our  children's  lives  to  broaden  and  enrich 
them. 

I  have  not  space  at  my  command  to  attempt  a 
minute  analysis  of  the  Iliad,  and  shall  content  my- 


164:       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

self  with  mentioning  the  main  significant  points. 
The  Iliad  is  full  of  the  noises  of  war,  the  hurtling 
of  arrows,  the  flashing  of  swords,  the  sounding  of 
spears  on  metal  shields,  the  groans  of  the  dying, 
"whose  eyes  black  darkness  covers."  The  chief 
virtues  illustrated  are  valor,  hospitality,  conjugal  af- 
fection, respect  for  the  aged.  I  offer  the  following 
suggestions  to  the  teacher.  After  describing  the 
wrath  of  Achilles,  relate  the  meeting  of  Diomedes 
and  Glaucus,  their  hostile  encounter,  and  their  mag- 
nanimous embrace  on  discovering  that  they  are 
guest  friends.  Read  the  beautiful  passage  begin- 
ning with  the  words,  "  Even  as  the  generations  of 
leaves,  such  are  those  likewise  of  men."  Dwell  on 
the  parting  of  Hector  and  Andromache.  Note 
that  she  has  lost  her  father,  her  lady  mother,  and 
her  seven  brothers.  Hector  is  to  her  father,  mother, 
brother,  and  husband,  all  in  one.  Note  also  Hec- 
tor's prayer  foj'  his  son  that  the  latter  may  excel 
him  in  bravery.  As  illustrative  of  friendship,  tell 
the  story  of  Achilles's  grief  for  Patroclus,  how  he 
lies  prone  upon  the  ground,  strewing  his  head  with 
dust ;  how  he  follows  the  body  lamenting ;  how  he 
declares  that  though  the  dead  forget  their  dead  in 
Hades,  even  there  he  would  not  forget  his  dear 
comrade.  Next  tell  of  the  slaying  of  Hector, 
and  how  Achilles  honors  the  suppliant  Priam  and 
restores  to  him  the  body  of  his  son.  It  is  the  mem- 
ory of  his  own  aged  father,  which  the  sight  of  Priam 
recalls,  that  melts  Achilles's  heart,  and  they  weep 
together,  each  for  his  own  dead.     Finally,  note  the 


THE  ODYSSEY  AND   THE  ILIAD.  165 

tribute  paid   to   Hector's  delicate  chivalry  in   the 
lament  of  Helen.  ^ 

*  In  connection  with  the  Homeric  poems  selections  from 
Greek  mythology  may  be  used,  such  as  the  story  of  Hercules, 
of  Theseus,  of  Perseus,  the  story  of  the  Argonauts,  and  others. 
These,  too,  breathe  the  spirit  of  adventure  and  illustrate  the 
virtues  of  courage,  perseverance  amid  difficulties,  chivalry,  etc. 


GEAMMAR  COUESE. 
LESSONS    ON    DJJTY. 


XL 
THE  DUTY  OF  ACQUIKING  KNOWLEDGE. 

In  setting  out  on  a  new  path  it  is  well  to  deter- 
mine beforehand  the  goal  we  hope  to  reach.  We 
are  about  to  begin  the  discussion  of  the  grammar 
course,  which  is  intended  for  children  between 
twelve  and  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  accordingly  ask  : 
What  result  can  we  expect  to  attain  ?  One  thing  is 
certain,  we  must  continue  to  grade  our  teaching,  to 
adapt  each  successive  step  to  the  capacities  of  the 
pupils,  to  keep  pace  with  their  mental  development. 

The  due  gradation  of  moral  teaching  is  all-im- 
portant. Whether  tlie  gradations  we  propose  are 
correct  is,  of  course,  a  matter  for  discussion  ;  but, 
at  all  events,  a  point  will  be  gained  if  we  shall  have 
brought  home  forcibly  to  teachers  the  necessity  of  a 
graded,  of  a  progressive  system. 

In  the  primary  course  we  have  set  before  the 
pupils  examples  of  good  and  bad  conduct,  with  a 
view  to  training  their  powers  of  moral  perception. 
We  are  now  ready  to  advance  from  percepts  to  con- 
cepts. We  have  endeavored  to  cultivate  the  faculty 
of  observation,  we  can  now  attempt  the  higher  task 
of  generalization.  In  the  primary  course  we  have 
tried  to  make  the  pupils  perceive  moral  distinctions  ; 
in  the  grammar  course  we  shall  try  to  make  them 

(169) 


170        MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

reason  about  moral  distinctions,  help  them  to  gain 
notions  of  duty,  to  arrive  at  principles  or  maxims 
of  good  conduct.  The  grammar  course,  therefore, 
will  consist  in  the  main  of  lessons  on  duty. 

What  has  just  been  said,  however,  requires  fur- 
ther explanation  to  prevent  misapprehension.  I 
have  remarked  that  the  pupil  is  now  to  reach  out 
toward  concepts  of  duty,  and  to  establish  for  himself 
maxims  or  principles  of  conduct.  But  of  what  na- 
ture shall  these  maxims  be  ?  The  philosopher  Kant 
has  proposed  the  following  maxim  :  "  So  act  that  the 
maxim  underlying  thy  action  may  justify  itself  to 
thy  mind  as  a  universal  law  of  conduct."  According 
to  him,  the  note  of  universality  is  the  distinctive 
characteristic  of  all  ethical  conduct.  The  school  of 
Bentham  proposes  a  different  maxim  :  "  So  act  that 
the  result  of  thy  action  shall  tend  to  insure  the 
greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest  number."  Theo- 
logians tell  us  so  to  act  that  our  will  may  harmonize 
with  the  will  of  God.  But  pupils  of  the  grammar 
grade  are  not  ripe  to  understand  such  metaphysical 
and  theological  propositions.  And,  moreover,  as 
was  pointed  out  in  our  first  lecture,  it  would  be  a 
grave  injustice  to  teach  in  schools  supported  by  all 
ethical  first  principles  which  are  accepted  only  by 
some.  We  are  not  concerned  with  first  principles. 
We  exclude  the  discussion  of  them,  be  they  philo- 
sophical or  theological,  from  the  school.  But  there 
are  certain  secondary  principles,  certain  more  con- 
crete rules  of  behavior,  which  nevertheless  possess 
the  character  of  generalizations,  and  these  will  suf- 


THE  DUTY  OF  ACQUIRING  KNOWLEDGE.    171 

fice  for  our  purpose.  And  with  respect  to  tliese 
there  is  really  no  difference  of  opinion  among  the 
different  schools  and  sects,  and  on  them  as  a  founda- 
tion we  can  build. 

It  is  our  business  to  discover  such  secondary 
principles,  and  in  our  instruction  to  lead  the  pupil 
to  the  recognition  of  them  The  nature  of  the  for- 
mulas of  duty  which  we  have  in  mind — formulas 
which  shall  express  the  generalized  moral  experience 
of  civilized  mankind,  will  appear  more  plainly  if  we 
examine  the  processes  by  which  we  arrive  at  them. 
An  example  will  best  elucidate :  Suppose  that  I  am 
asked  to  give  a  lesson  on  the  duty  of  truthfulness. 
At  the  stage  which  we  have  now  reached  it  will  not 
be  enough  merely  to  emphasize  the  general  com- 
mandment against  lying.  The  general  commandment 
leaves  in  the  pupil's  mind  a  multitude  of  doubts  un- 
solved. Shall  I  always  tell  the  truth — that  is  to  say, 
the  whole  truth,  as  I  know  it,  and  to  everybody  ? 
Is  it  never  right  to  withhold  the  truth,  or  even  to 
say  what  is  the  contrary  of  true,  as,  e.  g.,  to  the  sick 
or  insane.  Such  questions  as  tliese  are  constantly 
being  asked.  What  is  needed  is  a  rule  of  veracity 
which  shall  leave  the  general  principle  of  truth- 
speaking  unshaken,  and  shall  yet  cover  all  these  ex- 
ceptional cases.  How  to  arrive  at  such  a  rule  ?  I 
should  go  about  it  in  the  following  manner,  and  the 
method  here  described  is  the  one  which  is  intended 
to  be  followed  throughout  the  entire  course  of  les- 
sons on  duty.  I  should  begin  by  presenting  a  con- 
crete case.     A  certain  child  had  broken  a  precious 


172       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF   CHILDREN. 

vase.  When  asked  whether  it  had  done  so,  it  an- 
swered, "  No."  How  do  you  characterize  such  a 
statement  ?  As  a  falsehood.  The  active  participation 
of  the  pupils  in  the  discussion  is  essential.  Prop- 
erly questioned,  they  will  join  in  it  heart  and  soul. 
There  must  ^be  constant  give  and  take  between 
teaclier  and  class.  Upon  the  fulfillment  of  this  con- 
dition the  value  of  this  sort  of  teaching  entirely 
depends.  The  teacher  then  proceeds  to  analyze  the 
instance  above  given,  or  any  other  that  he  may  se- 
lect from  those  which  the  pupils  offer  him.  The 
child  says  no  when  it  should  have  said  yes,  or  a  per- 
son says  black  when  he  should  have  said  white.  In 
what  does  the  falsehood  of  such  statements  consist  ? 
In  the  circumstance  that  the  words  spoken  do  not 
correspond  to  the  facts.  Shall  we  then  formulate 
the  rule  of  veracity  as  follows:  Make  thy  words 
correspond  to  the  facts ;  and  shall  we  infer  that  any 
one  whose  words  do  not  correspond  to  the  facts  is  a 
liar  ?  But  clearly  this  is  not  so.  The  class  is  asked 
to  give  instances  tending  to  prove  the  insufficiency 
of  the  proposed  formula.  Before  the  days  of  Co- 
pernicus it  was  generally  asserted  that  the  sun  re- 
volves around  the  earth.  Should  we  be  justified  in 
setting  down  the  many  excellent  persons  w^ho  made 
such  statements  as  liars  ?  Yet  their  w^ords  did 
not  correspond  to  tlie  facts.  Very  true ;  but  they 
did  not  intend  to  deviate  from  the  facts — they  did 
not  know  better.  Shall  we  then  change  the  formula 
so  as  to  read :  Intend  that  thy  words  shall  conform 
to  the  facts  ?     But  the  phrase  "  correspond  to  the 


THE   DUTY   OF  ACQUIRING   KNOWLEDGE.   173 

facts  "  needs  to  be  made  more  explicit.  Cases  occur 
in  which  a  statement  does  correspond  to  the  facts, 
or,  at  least,  seems  to  do  so,  and  yet  a  contemptible 
falsehood  is  implied.  The  instance  of  the  truant 
boy  is  in  point  who  entered  the  school-building  five 
minutes  before  the  close  of  the  exercises,  and  on 
being  asked  at  home  whether  he  had  been  at  school, 
promptly  answered  "  Yes  "  ;  and  so  he  had  been  for 
five  minutes.  But  in  this  case  the  boy  suppressed  a 
part  of  the  facts — and,  moreover,  the  essential  part — 
namely,  that  he  had  been  absent  from  school  for 
five  hours  and  fifty-five  minutes.  Cases  of  mental 
reservation  and  the  like  fall  under  the  same  con- 
demnation. The  person  who  took  an  oath  in  court, 
using  the  words,  "As  truly  as  I  stand  on  this  stone," 
but  who  had  previously  filled  his  shoes  with  earth, 
suppressed  the  essential  fact — viz.,  that  he  had  filled 
his  shoes  w4th  earth. 

Shall  we  then  formulate  the  rule  in  this  wise : 
Intend  to  make  thy  words  correspond  to  the  essen- 
tial facts  ?  But  even  this  wdll  not  entirely  satisfy. 
For  there  are  cases,  surely,  in  which  we  deliberately 
frame  our  words  in  such  a  way  that  they  shall  not 
correspond  to  the  essential  facts — for  instance,  if 
we  should  meet  a  murderer  w^ho  should  ask  us  in 
which  direction  his  intended  victim  had  fled,  or  in 
the  case  of  an  insane  person  intent  on  suicide,  or  of 
the  sick  in  extreme  danger,  whom  the  communication 
of  bad  news  would  kill.  How  can  we  justify  such  a 
procedure  ?  We  can  justify  it  on  the  ground  that 
lan^uao^e  as  a  means  of  communication  is  intended 


174:       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF   CHILDREN. 

to  further  the  rational  purposes  of  human  hfe,  and 
not  conversely  are  tlie  rational  purposes  of  life  to 
be  sacrificed  to  any  merely  formal  principle  of  truth- 
telling.  A  person  who,  like  the  murderer,  is  about 
to  use  the  fact  conveyed  to  him  by  my  words  as  a 
weapon  with  w^liich  to  kill  a  fellow-being  has  no 
right  to  be  put  in  possession  of  the  fact.  An  insane 
person,  who  can  not  use  the  truthful  communications 
of  others  except  for  irrational  ends,  is  also  outside 
the  pale  of  those  to  whom  such  tools  can  properly 
be  intrusted.  And  so  are  the  sick,  when  so  enfeebled 
that  the  shock  of  grief  would  destroy  them.  For 
the  rational  use  of  grief  is  to  provoke  in  us  a  moral 
reaction,  to  rouse  in  us  the  strength  to  bear  our 
heav}'-  burdens,  and,  in  bearing,  to  learn  invalu- 
able moral  lessons.  But  those  who  are  physically 
too  weak  to  rally  from  the  first  shock  of  grief  are 
unable  to  secure  this  result,  and  they  must  there- 
fore be  classed,  for  the  time  being,  as  persons  not 
in  a  condition  to  make  rational  use  of  the  facts  of 
life.  It  is  not  from  pain  and  suffering  that  we  are 
permitted  to  shield  them.  Pain  and  suffering  we 
must  be  willing  both  to  endure  and  also  to  infiict 
upon  those  whom  we  love  best,  if  necessary.  Reason 
can  and  should  triumph  over  pain.  But  when  the 
reasoning  faculty  is  impaired,  or  when  the  body  is 
too  w^eak  to  respond  to  the  call  of  reason,  the  obli- 
gation of  triith-tellmg  ceases.  I  am  not  unaware 
that  this  is  a  dangerous  doctrine  to  teach.  I  should 
always  take  the  greatest  pains  to  impress  upon  my 
pupils  that   the  irrational   condition,   which  alone 


THE  DUTY  OF  ACQUIRING   KNOWLEDGE.   175 

justifies  the  withholding  of  the  truth,  must  be  so 
obvious  that  there  can  be  no  mistake  about  it,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  murderer  who,  with  knife  in  hand, 
pursues  his  victim,  or  of  the  insane,  or  of  tlie  sick, 
in  regard  to  whom  the  physician  positively  declares 
that  the  shock  of  bad  news  would  endanger  life. 
But  I  do  think  that  w^e  are  bound  to  face  these  ex- 
ceptional cases,  and  to  discuss  them  witli  our  pupils. 
For  the  latter  know  as  well  as  we  that  in  certain 
exceptional  situations  the  best  men  do  not  tell  the 
truth,  that  in  such  situations  no  one  tells  the  truth, 
except  he  be  a  moral  fanatic.  And  unless  these  ex- 
ceptional cases  are  clearly  marked  off  and  explained 
and  justified,  the  general  authority  of  truth  will  be 
shaken,  or  at  least  the  obligation  of  veracity  will  be- 
come very  much  confused  in  the  pupil's  mind.  In 
my  opinion,  the  confusion  which  does  exist  on  this 
subject  is  largely  due  to  a  failure  to  distinguish 
between  inward  truthfulness  and  truthfulness  as  re- 
flected in  speech.  The  law  of  inward  truthfulness 
tolerates  no  exceptions.  We  should  alw^ays,  and  as 
far  as  possible,  be  absolutely  truthful,  in  our  think- 
ing, in  our  estimates,  in  our  judgments.  But  lan- 
guage is  a  mere  vehicle  for  the  communication  of 
thoughts  and  facts  to  others,  and  in  communicating 
thoughts  and  facts  we  are  bound  to  consider  in  how 
far  others  are  fit  to  receive  them.  Shall  we  then 
formulate  the  rule  of  veracity  thus :  Intend  to 
communicate  the  essential  facts  to  those  who  are 
capable  of  making  a  rational  use  of  them.  I  think 
that  some  such  formula  as  this  might  answer.     I 


176       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

am  not  disposed  to  stickle  for  this  particular  phrase- 
ology. But  the  formula  as  stated  illustrates  my 
thought,  and  also  the  method  by  which  the  formulas, 
which  we  shall  have  to  teach  in  the  grammar  course 
are  to  be  reached.  It  is  the  inductive  method. 
First  a  concrete  case  is  presented,  and  a  rule  of 
conduct  is  hypothetically  suggested,  which  fits  this 
particular  case.  Then  other  cases  are  adduced.  It 
is  discovered  that  the  rule  as  it  stands  thus  far 
does  not  fit  them.  It  must  therefore  be  modi- 
fied, expanded.  Then,  in  succession,  other  and 
more  complex  cases,  to  which  the  rule  may  possibly 
apply  are  brought  forward,  until  every  case  we  can 
think  of  has  been  examined;  and  when  the  rule 
is  brought  into  such  shape  that  it  fits  them  all, 
we  have  a  genuine  moral  maxim,  a  safe  rule  for 
practical  guidance,  and  the  principle  involved  in 
the  rule  is  one  of  those  secondary  principles  in  re- 
spect to  w^hich  men  of  every  sect  and  school  can 
agree.  It  needs  hardly  to  be  pointed  out  how  much 
a  casuistical  discussion  of  this  sort  tends  to  stimu- 
late interest  in  moral  problems,  and  to  quicken  the 
moral  judgment.  I  can  say,  from  an  experience  of 
over  a  dozen  years,  that  pupils  between  tw^elve  and 
fifteen  years  of  age  are  immensely  interested  in  such 
discussions,  and  are  capable  of  making  the  subtilest 
distinctions.  Indeed,  the  directness  with  which  they 
pronounce  their  verdict  on  fine  questions  of  right 
and  wrong  often  has  in  it  something  almost  startling 
to  older  persons,  whose  contact  with  the  world  has 
reconciled  them  to  a  somewhat  less  exactino;  standard. 


THE  DUTY  OF  ACQUIRING  KNOWLEDGE.   177 

But  here  a  caution  is  necessary.  Some  children 
seem  to  be  too  fond  of  casuistry.  They  take  an  in- 
tellectual pleasure  in  drawing  fine  distinctions,  and 
questions  of  conscience  are  apt  to  become  to  them 
mere  matter  of  mental  gymnastics.  Such  a  tend- 
ency must  be  sternly  repressed  whenever  it  shows 
itself.  In  fact,  reasoning  about  moral  principles  is 
always  attended  with  a  certain  peril.  After  all,  the 
actual  morality  of  the  world  depends  largely  on  the 
moral  habits  which  mankind  have  formed  in  the 
course  of  many  ages,  and  Avhich  are  transmitted 
from  generation  to  generation.  Now  a  habit  acts  a 
good  deal  like  an  instinct.  Its  force  depends  upon 
what  has  been  called  unconscious  cerebration.  As 
soon  as  we  stop  to  reason  about  our  habits,  their 
hold  on  us  is  weakened,  we  hesitate,  we  become  un- 
certain, the  interference  of  the  mind  acts  like  a 
brake.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  throughout  the  pri- 
mary course,  we  have  confined  ourselves  to  what  the 
Germans  call  Anschauung^  the  close  observation  of 
examples  with  a  view  of  provoking  imitation  or  re- 
pugnance, and  thus  strengthening  the  force  of  habit. 
Why,  then,  introduce  analysis  now,  it  may  be  asked. 
Why  not  be  content  with  still  further  confirming 
the  force  of  good  habits  ?  My  answer  is  that  the 
force  of  habit  must  be  conserved  and  still  further 
strengthened,  but  that  analysis,  too,  becomes  neces- 
sary at  this  stage.  And  why  ?  Because  habits  are 
always  specialized.  A  person  governed  by  habits 
falls  into  a  certain  routine,  and  moves  along  easily 

and  safely  as  long  as  the  conditions  repeat  them- 
12 


178       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

selves  to  which  his  habits  are  adjusted.  But  when 
confronted  bj  a  totally  new  set  of  conditions,  he  is 
often  quite  lost  and  helpless.  Just  as  a  person 
who  is  solely  guided  by  common  sense  in  the  ordi- 
nary affairs  of  life,  is  apt  to  be  stranded  when 
compelled  to  face  circumstances  for  which  his  pre- 
vious experience  affords  no  precedent.  It  is  neces- 
sary, therefore,  to  extract  from  the  moral  habits 
the  latent  rules  of  conduct  which  underlie  them, 
and  to  state  these  in  a  general  form  which  the  mind 
can  grasp  and  retain,  and  which  it  will  be  able 
to  apply  to  new  conditions  as  they  arise.  To  this 
end  analysis  and  the  formulation  of  rules  are  indis- 
pensable. But  in  order,  at  the  same  time,  not  to 
break  the  force  of  habit,  the  teacher  should  proceed 
in  the  following  manner :  He  should  always  take 
the  moral  habit  for  granted.  He  should  never  give 
his  pupils  to  understand  that  he  and  they  are  about 
to  examine  whether,  for  instance,  it  is  wrong  or 
not  wrong  to  lie.  The  commandment  against  lying 
is  assumed,  and  its  obligation  acknowledged  at  the 
outset.  The  only  object  of  the  analysis  is  to  discern 
more  exactly  what  is  meant  by  lying,  to  define  the 
rule  of  veracity  with  greater  precision  and  circnm- 
spectness,  so  that  we  may  be  enabled  to  fulfill  the 
commandment  more  perfectly.  It  is  implied  in 
what  I  have  said  that  the  teacher  should  not  treat 
of  moral  problems  as  if  he  were  dealing  with  prob- 
lems in  arithmetic.  The  best  thing  he  can  do  for 
his  pnpils — better  than  any  particular  lesson  he  can 
teach — will  be  to  communicate  to  them  the  spirit  of 


THE  DUTY  OF  ACQUIRING  KNOWLEDGE.   179 

moral  earnestness.  And  this  spirit  lie  can  not  com- 
municate unless  he  be  full  of  it  himself.  The  teacher 
should  consecrate  himself  to  his  task  ;  he  should  be 
penetrated  bj  a  sense  of  the  lofty  character  of  the 
subject  which  he  teaches.  Even  a  certain  atten- 
tion to  externals  is  not  superfluous.  The  lessons,  in 
the  case  of  the  younger  children,  may  be  accompa- 
nied by  song ;  the  room  in  which  the  classes  meet 
may  be  hung  with  appropriate  pictures,  and  espe- 
cially is  it  desirable  that  the  faces  of  great  and  good 
men  and  women  shall  look  down  upon  the  pupils 
from  the  walls.  The  instruction  should  be  given 
by  word  of  mouth;  for  the  right  text-books  do  not 
yet  exist,  and  even  the  best  books  jnust  always  act 
as  a  bar  to  check  that  flow  of  moral  influence  which 
should  come  from  the  teacher  to  quicken  the  class. 
To  make  sure  that  the  pupils  understand  what  they 
have  been  taught,  they  should  be  required  from 
time  to  time  to  reproduce  the  subject  matter  of  the 
lessons  in  their  own  language,  and  using  their  own 
illustrations,  in  the  form  of  essays. 

And  now,  after  this  general  introduction,  let  us 
take  up  the  lessons  on  the  duties  in  their  proper 
order.  What  is  the  proper  order  ?  This  question, 
you  will  remember,  was  discussed  in  the  lecture  on 
the  classification  of  duties.  It  was  there  stated  that 
the  life  of  man  from  childhood  upward,  may  be 
divided  into  periods,  that  each  period  has  its  special 
duties,  and  that  there  is  in  each  some  one  central  duty 
around  which  the  others  may  be  grouped.  During 
the  school  age  the  paramount  duty  of  the  pupil  is 


180       MORAL   INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

to  study.  We  shall  therefore  begin  with  the  duties 
which  are  connected  with  the  pursuit  of  knowledge. 
We  shall  then  take  up  the  duties  which  relate  to  the 
physical  life  and  the  feelings ;  next,  the  duties  which 
arise  in  the  family ;  after  that  the  duties  which  we 
owe  to  all  men ;  and  lastly  we  will  consider  in  an 
elementary  way  the  civic  duties. 

The  Duty  of  acquiring  Knowledge. — In  starting 
the  discussion  of  any  particular  set  of  duties,  it  is 
advisable,  as  has  been  said,  to  present  some  concrete 
case,  and  biographical  or  historical  examples  are  par- 
ticularly useful.  I  have  sometimes  begun  the  lesson 
on  the  duty  of  acquiring  knowledge  by  telling  the 
story  of  Cleanth^s  and  that  of  Hillel.  Cleanthes,  a 
poor  boy,  was  anxious  to  attend  the  school  of  Zeno. 
But  he  was  compelled  to  work  for  his  bread,  and 
could  not  spend  his  days  in  study  as  he  longed  to 
do.  He  was,  however,  so  eager  to  learn  that  he 
found  a  way  of  doing  his  work  by  night.  He 
helped  a  gardener  to  water  his  plants,  and  also  en- 
gaged to  grind  corn  on  a  hand-mill  for  a  certain 
woman.  JSTow  the  neighbors,  who  knew  that  he  was 
poor,  and  who  never  saw  him  go  to  work,  w^ere 
puzzled  to  think  how  he  obtained  the  means  to  live. 
They  suspected  him  of  stealing,  and  he  was  called 
before  the  Judge  to  explain.  The  Judge  addressed 
him  severely,  and  commanded  him  to  tell  the  truth. 
Cleanthes  requested  that  the  gardener  and  the  woman 
might  be  sent  for,  and  they  testified  that  he  had 
been  in  the  habit  of  working  for  them  by  night. 
The  Judge  was  touched  by  his  great  zeal  for  knowl- 


THE   DUTY  OF  ACQUIRING   KNOWLEDGE.   181 

edge,  acquitted  him  of  the  charge,  and  offered  him 
a  gift  of  money.  But  Zeno  would  not  permit  him 
to  take  the  gift.  Cleanthes  became  the  best  pupil 
of  Zeno,  and  grew  up  to  be  a  very  wise  and  learned 
man,  indeed  one  of  the  most  famous  philosophers 
of  the  Stoic  school.  The  story  of  Hillel  runs  as 
follows :  There  was  once  a  poor  lad  named  Hillel. 
His  parents  were  dead,  and  he  had  neither  relatives 
nor  friends.  He  was  anxious  to  go  to  school,  but, 
though  he  worked  hard,  he  did  not  earn  enough  to 
pay  the  tuition  fee  exacted  at  the  door.  So  he  de- 
cided to  save  money  by  spending  only  half  his  earn- 
ings for  food.  He  ate  little,  and  that  little  was  of 
poor  quality,  but  he  was  perfectly  happy,  because 
with  w^hat  he  laid  aside  he  could  now  pay  the  door- 
keeper and  find  a  place  inside,  where  he  might  listen 
and  learn.  This  he  did  for  some  time,  but  one  day 
he  was  so  unlucky  as  to  lose  his  situation.  He  had 
now  no  money  left  to  buy  bread,  but  he  hardly 
thought  of  that,  so  much  was  he  grieved  at  the 
thought  that  he  should  never  get  back  to  his  beloved 
school.  He  begged  the  door-keeper  to  let  him  in, 
but  the  surly  man  refused  to  do  so.  In  his  despair 
a  happy  thought  occurred  to  him.  He  had  noticed 
a  skylight  on  the  roof.  He  climbed  up  to  this,  and 
to  his  delight  found  that  through  a  crack  he  could 
hear  all  that  was  said  inside.  So  he  sat  there  and 
listened,  and  did  not  notice  that  evening  was  coming 
on,  and  that  the  snow  was  beginning  to  fall.  Next 
morning  when  the  teachers  and  pupils  assembled  as 
usual,   every   one   remarked   how  dark    the   room 


182       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

seemed.  The  sun  too  was  shining  again  by  this  time 
quite  brightly  outside.  Suddenly  some  one  hap- 
pened to  look  up  and  with  an  exclamation  of  sur- 
prise pointed  out  the  figure  of  a  boy  against  the 
skylight.  Quickly  they  all  ran  outside,  climbed  to 
the  roof,  and  there,  covered  with  snow,  quite  stiff 
and  almost  dead,  they  found  poor  Hillel.  They 
carried  him  indoors,  warmed  his  cold  limbs,  and 
worked  hard  to  restore  him  to  life.  He  was  at 
last  resuscitated,  and  from  this  time  on  was  al- 
lowed to  attend  the  school  without  paying.  Later 
he  became  a  great  teacher.  He  lived  in  Palestine 
at  about  the  time  of  Jesus.  He  was  admired  for 
his  learning,  but  even  more  for  his  good  deeds  and 
his  unfailing  kindness  to  every  one.  The  question 
is  now  raised.  Why  did  Cleanthes  work  at  night  in- 
stead of  seeking  rest,  and  why  did  Hillel  remain 
outside  in  the  bitter  cold  and  snow  ?  The  pupils 
will  readily  answer.  Because  they  loved  knowledge. 
But  why  is  knowledge  so  desirable  ?  With  this  in- 
terrogatory we  are  fairly  launched  on  the  discussion 
of  our  subject.  The  points  to  be  developed  are 
these : 

First,  knowledge  is  indispensable  as  a  means  of 
making  one's  way  in  the  world.  Show  the  helpless- 
ness of  the  ignorant.  Compare  the  skilled  laborer 
with  the  unskilled.  Give  instances  of  merchants, 
statesmen,  etc.,  whose  success  was  due  to  steady  ap- 
plication and  superior  knowledge.  Knowledge  is 
power  (namely,  in  the  struggle  for  existence). 

Secondly,  knowledge  is   honor.      An   ignorant 


THE  DUTY  OP  ACQUIRING  KNOWLEDGE.   183 

person  is  despised.  Knowledge  wins  us  the  esteem 
of  our  fellow-men. 

Thirdly,  knowledge  is  joy  in  a  twofold  sense. 
As  the  perception  of  light  to  the  eye  of  the  body,  so 
is  the  perception  of  truth  to  the  eye  of  the  mind.  The 
mind  experiences  an  intrinsic  pleasure  in  seeing  things 
in  their  true  relations.  Furthermore,  mental  growth 
is  accompanied  by  the  joy  of  successful  effort.  This 
can  be  explained  even  to  a  boy  or  girl  of  thirteen. 
Have  you  ever  tried  hard  to  solve  a  problem  in 
algebra?  Perhaps  you  have  spent  several  hours 
over  it.  It  has  baffled  you.  At  last,  after  repeated 
trials,  you  see  your  way  clear,  the  solution  is  within 
your  grasp.  What  a  sense  of  satisfaction  you  ex- 
perience then.  It  is  the  feeling  of  successful  mental 
effort  that  gives  you  this  satisfaction.  You  rejoice 
in  having  triumphed  over  difficulties,  and  the  greater 
the  difficulty,  the  more  baffling  and  complex  the  prob- 
lems, the  greater  is  the  satisfaction  in  solving  them. 

Fourthly,  knowledge  enables  us  to  do  good  to 
others.  Speak  of  the  use  which  physicians  make  of 
their  scientific  training  to  alleviate  suffering  and 
save  life.  Eef er  to  the  manifold  appHcations  of  sci- 
ence which  have  changed  the  face  of  modern  society, 
and  have  contributed  so  largely  to  the  moral  progress 
of  the  world.  Point  out  that  all  true  philanthropy, 
every  great  social  reform,  implies  a  superior  grasp 
of  the  problems  to  be  solved,  as  well  as  devotion  to 
the  cause  of  humanity.  In  accordance  witli  the  line 
of  argument  just  sketched  the  rule  for  the  pursuit  of 
knowledge  may  be  successively  expanded  as  follows : 


184       MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

Seek  knowledge  that  you  may  succeed  in  the 
struggle  for  existence. 

Seek  knowledge  that  you  may  gain  the  esteem 
of  your  fellow-men. 

Seek  knowledge  for  the  sake  of  the  satisfaction 
which  the  attainment  of  it  will  give  you. 

Seek  knowledge  that  you  may  be  able  to  do  good 
to  others. 

These  points  suffice  for  the  present.  In  the  ad- 
vanced course  we  shall  return  to  the  consideration 
of  the  intellectual  duties.  I  would  also  recommend 
that  the  moral  teacher,  not  content  with  dwelling  on 
the  uses  of  knowledge  in  general,  should  go  through 
the  list  of  subjects  which  are  commonly  taught  in 
school,  such  as  geography,  history,  language,  etc., 
and  explain  the  value  of  each.  This  is  too  com- 
monly neglected. 

Having  stationed  the  duty  of  acquiring  knowl- 
edge in  the  center,  connect  with  it  the  various  lesser 
duties  of  school  life,  such  as  punctual  attendance,  or- 
der, diligent  and  conscientious  preparation  of  home 
lessons,  etc.  These  are  means  to  an  end,  and  should 
be  represented  as  such.  He  who  desires  the  end  will 
desire  the  means.  Get  your  pupils  to  love  knowl- 
edge, and  the  practice  of  these  minor  virtues  will 
follow  of  itself.  Other  matters  might  be  introduced 
in  connection  with  w^hat  has  been  mentioned,  but 
enough  has  been  said  to  indicate  the  point  of  view 
from  which  the  whole  subject  of  intellectual  duty 
should,  as  I  think,  be  treated  in  the  present  course. 


XII. 

DUTIES  WHICH  RELATE   TO   THE 
PHYSICAL  LIFE. 

Of  the  duties  which  relate  to  the  physical  life, 
the  principal  one  is  that  of  self-preservation,  and 
this  involves  the  prohibition  of  suicide.  When  one 
reflects  on  the  abject  life  which  many  persons  are 
forced  to  lead,  on  their  poverty  in  the  things  which 
make  existence  desirable  and  the  lack  of  moral 
stamina  which  often  goes  together  with  such  condi- 
tions, the  wonder  is  that  the  number  of  suicides  is 
not  much  greater  than  it  actually  is.  It  is  true  most 
people  cling  to  life  instinctively,  and  have  an  in- 
stinctive horror  of  death.  Nevertheless,  the  force 
of  instinct  is  by  no  means  a  sufficient  deterrent  in 
all  cases,  and  the  number  of  suicides  is  just  now 
alarmingly  on  the  increase.  If  we  were  here  con- 
sidering the  subject  of  suicide  in  general  we  should 
have  to  enter  at  large  into  the  causes  of  this  in- 
crease ;  we  should  have  to  examine  the  relations  sub- 
sisting between  the  increase  of  suicide  and  the  in- 
crease of  divorce,  and  inquire  into  those  pathological 
conditions  of  modern  society  of  which  both  are  the 
symptoms  ;  but  our  business  is  to  consider  the  ethics 
of  the  matter,  not  the  causes.  The  ethics  of  suicide 
resolves  itself  into  the  question,  Is  it  justifiable  under 

(185) 


186       MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF   CHILDREN. 

any  circumstances  to  take  one's  life  ?  You  may  ob- 
ject that  this  is  not  a  fit  subject  to  discuss  with  pupils 
of  thirteen  or  fourteen.  Why  not  ?  They  are  old 
enough  to  understand  the  motives  which  ordinarily 
lead  to  suicide,  and  also  the  reasons  which  forbid  it — ^ 
especially  the  most  important  reason,  namely,  that 
we  live  not  merely  or  primarily  to  be  happy,  but  to 
help  on  as  far  as  we  can  the  progress  of  things,  and 
therefore  that  we  are  not  at  liberty  to  throw  life 
away  like  an  empty  shell  when  w^e  have  ceased  to 
enjoy  it.  The  discussion  of  suicide  is  indeed  of  the 
greatest  use  because  it  affords  an  opportunity  early 
in  the  course  of  our  lessons  on  duty  to  impress  this 
cardinal  truth,  to  describe  upon  the  moral  globe  this 
great  meridian  from  which  all  the  virtues  take  their 
bearings.  However,  in  accordance  with  the  induct- 
ive method,  we  must  approach  this  idea  by  degrees. 
The  first  position  I  should  take  is  that  while  suffer- 
ing is  often  temporary,  suicide  is  final.  It  is  folly  to 
take  precipitately  a  step  which  can  not  be  recalled. 
Very  often  in  moments  of  deep  depression  the  future 
before  us  seems  utterly  dark,  and  in  our  firmament 
there  appears  not  one  star  of  hope  ;  but  presently 
from  some  wholly  unexpected  quarter  help  comes. 
Fortune  once  more  takes  us  into  hei*  good  graces, 
and  we  are  scarcely  able  to  understand  our  past  down- 
heartedness  in  view  of  the  new  happiness  to  which 
we  have  fallen  heirs.  Preserve  thy  life  in  view  of 
the  brighter  chances  w^hich  the  future  may  have  in 
store.  This  is  a  good  rule  as  far  as  it  goes,  but  it 
does  not  fit  the  more  trying  situations.     For  there 


DUTIES  WHICH   RELATE   TO   PHYSICAL  LIFE.  187 

are  cases  where  the  fall  from  the  heights  of  happi- 
ness is  as  complete  as  it  is  sudden,  and  the  hope  of 
recovering  lost  ground  is  really  shut  out. 

Take  from  actual  life  the  case  of  a  husband 
who  fairly  idolized  his  young  wife  and  lost  her  by 
death  three  months  after  marriage.  We  may  sup- 
pose that  in  the  course  of  years  he  will  learn  to  sub- 
mit to  his  destiny.  We  may  even  hope  that  peace 
will  come  back  to  his  poor  heart,  but  we  can  not 
imagine  that  he  will  ever  again  be  happy.  Another 
case  is  that  of  a  person  who  has  committed  a  great 
wrong,  the  consequences  of  which  are  irreparable, 
and  of  which  he  must  carry  the  agonizing  recollection 
with  him  to  the  grave.  Time  may  assuage  the  pangs 
of  remorse,  and  religion  may  comfort  him,  but  hap- 
piness can  never  be  the  portion  of  such  as  he. 

Still  another  instance — less  serious,  but  of  more 
frequent  occurrence — is  that  of  a  merchant  who  has 
always  occupied  a  conmianding  position  in  the  mer- 
cantile community,  and  who,  already  advanced  in 
years,  is  suddenly  compelled  to  face  bankruptcy. 
The  thought  of  the  hardships  to  which  his  family 
will  be  exposed,  of  his  impending  disgrace,  drives 
him  nearly  to  distraction.  The  question  is,  would 
the  merchant,  would  those  others,  be  justified  in 
committing  suicide  ?  Certainly  not.  The  merchant, 
if  he  has  the  stuff  of  true  manhood  in  him,  will  be- 
gin over  again,  at  the  bottom  of  the  ladder  if  need 
be,  will  work  to  support  his  family,  however  nar- 
rowly. It  would  be  the  rankest  selfishness  in  him 
to  leave  them  to  their  fate.    The  conscience-stricken 


188        MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF   CHILDREN. 

sinner  must  be  willing  to  pay  the  penalty  of  his 
crime,  to  the  end  that  he  may  be  purified  even  seven 
times  in  the  fire  of  repentance.  And  even  the  lover 
who  has  lost  his  bride  will  find,  if  he  opens  his  eyes, 
that  there  is  still  work  for  him  to  do  in  life.  The 
world  is  full  of  evils  which  require  to  be  removed, 
full  of  burdens  which  require  to  be  borne.  If  our 
own  burden  seems  too  heavy  for  us,  there  is  a  way 
of  lightening  it.  We  may  add  to  it  the  burden  of 
some  one  else,  and  ours  will  become  hghter.  Physic- 
ally, this  would  be  impossible,  but  morally  it  is  true. 
The  rule  of  conduct,  therefore,  thus  far  reads.  Pre- 
serve thy  life  in  order  to  perform  thy  share  of  the 
work  of  the  world.  But  the  formula,  even  in  this 
shape,  is  not  yet  entirely  adequate,  for  there  are  those 
who  can  not  take  part  in  the  work  of  the  world,  who 
can  o-nly  suffer — invalids,  e.  g.,  who  are  permanently 
incapacitated,  and  whose  infirmities  make  them  a 
constant  drag  on  the  healthy  lives  of  their  friends. 
Why  should  not  these  be  permitted  to  put  an  end  to 
their  miseries  ?  I  should  say  that  so  long  as  there  is 
the  slightest  hope  of  recovery,  and  even  where  this 
hope  is  wanting,  so  long  as  the  physical  pain  is  not 
so  intense  or  so  protracted  as  to  paralyze  the  mental 
life  altogether,  they  should  hold  out.  They  are  not 
cut  off  from  the  true  ends  of  human  existence.  By 
patient  endurance,  by  the  exercise  of  a  sublime  un- 
selfishness, they  may  even  attain  on  their  sick-beds 
a  height  of  spiritual  development  which  would 
otherwise  be  impossible  ;  and,  in  addition,  they  may 
become  by  their  uncomplaining  patience  the  sweet- 


DUTIES  WHICH  RELATE  TO  PHYSICAL  LIFE.  189 

est,  gentlest  lielpers  of  their  friends,  not  useless, 
assuredly,  but  shining  examples  of  what  is  best  and 
noblest  in  human  nature.  The  rule,  therefore,  should 
read :  Preserve  thy  life  in  order  to  fulfill  the  duties 
of  life,  whether  those  duties  consist  in  doing  or  in 
patiently  suffering.  As  has  been  said  long  ago,  we 
are  placed  on  guard  as  sentinels.  The  sentinel  must 
not  desert  his  post.  I  think  it  possible  to  make  the 
pupil  in  the  grammar  grade  understand  that  suicide 
is  selfish,  that  we  are  bound  to  live,  even  though 
life  has  ceased  to  be  attractive,  in  order  that  we  may 
perform  our  share  of  the  world's  work  and  help 
others  and  grow  ourselves  in  moral  stature.  This 
does  not,  of  course,  imply  any  condemnation  of  that 
vast  number  of  cases  in  which  suicide  is  committed 
in  consequence  of  mental  aberration. 

In  the  advanced  course  we  shall  have  to  return 
to  this  subject,  and  shall  there  refer  in  extenso  to 
the  views  of  the  Stoics.  The  morality  of  the  Stoic 
philosophers  in  general  is  so  high,  and  their  influence 
even  to  this  day  so  great,  that  their  defense,  or 
rather  enthusiastic  praise  of  suicide,^  needs  to  be 
carefully  examined.  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  we 
have  here  a  case  in  which  metaphysical  speculation 
has  had  the  effect  of  distorting  morality.  Meta- 
physics in  this  respect  resembles  religion.  On  the 
one  hand  the  influence  of  religion  on  morality  has 
been  highly  beneficial,  on  the  other  it  has  been 
hurtful    in    the    extreme — instance    human    sacri- 

*  See,  e.  g.,  the  famous  passage  in  Seneca,  De  Ira,  iii,  15. 


190       MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

fices,  religious  wars,  the  Inquisition,  etc.  In  like 
manner,  philosophy,  though  not  to  the  same  extent, 
has  both  aided  morality  and  injured  it.  I  regard 
the  Stoic  declamations  on  suicide  as  an  instance  of 
the  latter  sort.  The  Stoic  philosophy  was  panthe- 
istic. To  live  according  to  Nature  was  their  prin- 
cipal maxim,  or,  more  precisely,  according  to  the 
reason  in  Nature.  They  maintained  that  in  certain 
circumstances  a  man  might  find  it  impossible  to  live 
up  to  the  rational  standard ;  he  might,  for  instance, 
discover  himself  to  be  morally  so  w^eak  as  to  be  un- 
able to  resist  temptation,  and  in  that  case  it  would 
be  better  for  him  to  retire  from  the  scene  and 
to  seek  shelter  in  the  Eternal  Eeason,  just  as, 
to  use  their  own  simile,  one  who  found  the  room  in 
which  he  sat  filled  to  an  intolerable  degree  with 
smoke  would  not  be  blamed  for  withdrawing  from 
it.  It  was  their  pantheism  that  led  them  to  favor 
suicide,  and  in  this  respect  it  is  my  belief  that  the 
modern  conscience,  trained  by  the  Old  and  ISTew 
Testaments,  has  risen  to  a  higher  level  than  theirs. 
We  moderns  feel  it  impossible  to  admit  that  to  the 
sane  mind  temptation  can  ever  be  so  strong  as  to  be 
truly  irresistible.  We  always  can  resist  if  w^e  will. 
We  can,  because  we  ought ;  as  Kant  has  taught  us 
to  put  it.     We  always  can  because  we  always  ought. 

Note. — Despite  the  rigorous  disallowance  of  suicide  in  gen- 
eral plainly  indicated  in  the  above,  I  should  not  wish  to  be 
understood  as  saying  that  there  are  no  circumstances  whatever 
in  which  the  taking  of  one's  life  is  permissible.  In  certain  rare 
and  exceptional  cases  I  believe  it  to  be  so.  In  the  lecture  as 
delivered  I  attempted  a  brief  description  of  these  exceptional 


DUTIES  WHICH  RELATE  TO   PHYSICAL  LIFE.  J  91 

cases,  too  brief,  it  appeared,  to  prevent  most  serious  misconcep- 
tion. I  deem  it  best,  therefore,  to  defer  the  expression  of  my 
views  on  this  delicate  matter  until  an  occasion  arrives  when  I 
shall  be  able  to  articulate  my  thought  in  full  detail,  such  as 
would  here  be  impossible. 

From  the  commandment  "  Preserve  tliy  life  "  it 
follows  not  only  that  we  should  not  lay  violent  hands 
upon  ourselves,  but  that  we  should  do  all  in  our 
power  to  develop  and  invigorate  the  body,  in  order 
that  it  may  become  an  efficient  instrument  in  the 
service  of  our  higher  aims.  The  teacher  should  in- 
form himself  on  the  subject  of  the  gymnastic  ideal 
of  the  Greeks  and  consider  in  how  far  this  ideal  is 
applicable  to  modern  conditions.  In  general,  the 
teacher  should  explore  as  fully  as  possible  the  ethical 
problems  on  which  he  touches.  He  should  not  be 
merely  "  one  lesson  ahead  "  of  his  pupils.  Eeally  it 
is  necessary  to  grasp  the  whole  of  a  subject  before 
we  can  properly  set  forth  its  elements.  A  very 
thorough  normal  training  is  indispensable  to  those 
who  would  give  moral  instruction  to  the  young. 

The  duties  of  cleanliness  and  temperance  fall 
under  the  same  head  as  the  above.  In  speaking  of 
cleanliness,  there  are  three  motives — the  egoistic, 
the  aesthetic,  and  the  moral — to  which  we  may  appeal. 
Be  scrupulously  clean  for  the  sake  of  health,  be 
clean  lest  you  become  an  object  of  disgust  to  others, 
be  clean  in  order  to  retain  your  self-respect.  Special 
emphasis  should  be  laid  on  secret  cleanliness.  In- 
dolent children  are  sometimes  neat  in  externals,  but 
shockingly  careless  in  what  is  concealed  from  view. 


192       MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF   CHILDREN. 

The  motive  of  self-respect  shows  itself  particularly 
in  secret  cleanliness. 

The  duty  of  temperance  is  supported  by  the  same 
three   motives.     Intemperance    undermines  health, 
the  glutton  or  the  drunkard  awakens  disgust,  intem- 
perance  destroys   self-respect.     To   strengthen    the 
repugnance  of  the  pupils  against  intemperance  in 
eating,  contrast  the  way  in  which  wild  beasts  eat  with 
that  in  which  human  beings  partake  of  their  food. 
The   beast  is  absorbed  in  the  gratification   of  its 
appetite,  eats  without  the  use  of  implements,  eats  un- 
socially.     The  human  way  of  eating  is  in  each  par- 
ticular the  opposite.    Show  especially  that  the  act  of 
eating  is  spiritualized  by  being  made  subservient  to 
friendly  intercourse  and  to  the  strengthening  of  the 
ties  of  domestic  affection.    The  family  table  becomes 
the  family  altar.     Call  attention  also  to  the  effects 
of  drunkenness ;   point  out  the  injuries  w^hich  the 
drunkard  inflicts  on  wife  and  children  by  his  neg- 
lect to  provide  for  them,  by  the  outbursts  of  violence 
to  which  he  is  subject  under  the  influence  of  strong 
drink ;  describe  his  physical,  mental,  and  moral  deg- 
radation ;  lay  stress  on  the  fact  that  liquor  deprives 
him  of  the  use  of  his  reason.     With  respect  to  tem- 
perance in  food,  there  are  one  or  two  points  to  be 
noted.     I  say  to  my  pupils  if  you  are  particularly 
fond   of   a  certain  dish,  sweetmeats,  for  instance, 
make  it  a  rule  to  partake  less  of  that  than  if  you 
were  not  so  fond  of  it.    This  is  good  practice  in  self- 
restraint.     I  make  out  as  strong  a  case  as  possible 
against  the  indulgence  of  the  candy  habit.     Young 


DUTIES  WHICH   RELATE  TO  PHYSICAL  LIFE.  I93 

people  are -not,  as  a  rule,  tempted  to  indulge  in 
strong  drink ;  but  they  are  tempted  to  waste  their 
money  and  injure  their  health  by  an  excessive  con- 
sumption of  sweets.  It  is  well  to  apply  the  lesson 
of  temperance  to  the  things  in  which  they  are 
tempted.  For  the  teacher  the  following  note  may 
be  added:  Of  the  senses,  some,  like  that  of  taste, 
are  more  nearly  allied  to  the  physical  part  of  us; 
others,  like  sight  and  hearing,  to  our  rational  nature. 
This  antithesis  of  the  senses  may  be  used  in  the  in- 
terest of  temperance.  Appeal  to  the  higher  senses 
in  order  to  subdue  the  lower.  A  band  of  kinder- 
garten children,  having  been  invited  on  a  picnic, 
were  given  the  choice  between  a  second  plate  of 
ice  cream,  for  which  many  of  them  were  clamor- 
ing, and  a  bunch  of  flowers  for  each.  Most  of 
them  were  sufficiently  interested  in  flowers  to  pre- 
fer the  latter.  In  the  case  of  young  children,  the 
force  of  the  physical  appetite  may  also  be  weakened 
by  appealing  to  their  affection.  During  the  later 
stage  of  adolescence,  when  the  dangers  which  arise 
from  the  awakening  life  of  the  senses  become  great 
and  imminent,  the  attention  should  be  directed  to 
high  intellectual  aims,  the  social  feelings  should  be 
cultivated,  and  a  taste  for  the  pleasures  of  the  senses 
of  sight  and  hearing — namely,  the  pleasures  of 
music,  painting,  sculpture,  etc. — should  be  carefully 
developed.  Artistic,  intellectual,  and  social  motives 
should  be  brought  into  play  jointly  to  meet  the  one 

great  peril  of  this  period  of  life. 

13  ^ 


194       MORAL   IIS^STRUCTION   OF   CHILDREN. 

Duties  which  kelate  to  the  Feelings. 

Under  this  head  let  me  speak  first  of  fear. 
There  is  a  distinction  to  be  drawn  between  physical 
and  moral  cowardice.  Physical  cowardice  is  a  matter 
of  temperament  or  organization.  Perhaps  it  can 
hardly  ever  be  entirely  overcome,  but  the  exhibition 
of  it  can  be  prevented  by  moral  courage.  Moral 
cowardice,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  fault  of  char- 
acter. In  attempting  to  formulate  the  rule  of 
conduct,  appeal  as  before  to  the  egoistic  motive, 
then  to  the  social — i.  e.,  the  desire  for  the  good 
opinion  of  otliers — and  lastly  to  the  moral  motive, 
properly  speaking.  Fear  paralyzes ;  it  fascinates 
its  victim  like  the  fabled  basilisk.  Nothing  is 
more  common  than  a  sense  of  helpless  immobility 
under  the  influence  of  fear.  There  is  a  way 
of  escape.  You  might  run  or  leap  for  your  life, 
but  you  can  not  stir  a  limb.  What  you  need  to 
do  is  to  turn  away  your  attention  by  a  powerful 
effort  of  the  will  from  the  object  which  excites  fear. 
So  long  as  that  object  is  before  you  the  mind  can 
not  act ;  the  mind  is  practically  absent.  "What  you 
need  is  presence  of  mind.  Let  the  teacher  adduce 
some  of  the  many  striking  instances  in  which  men 
in  apparently  desperate  straits  have  been  saved  by 
presence  of  mind.  The  rule  thus  far  would  read : 
Be  brave  and  suppress  fear,  because  by  so  doing 
you  may  escape  out  of  danger.  In  the  next  place, 
by  so  doing  you  will  escape  the  reproaches  of  your 
fellow-men,  for  cowardice  is  universally  condemned 


DUTIES  WHICH   RELATE   TO   PHYSICAL   LIFE.  195 

as  shameful.  Cite  from  Spartan  history  examples 
showing  in  the  strongest  liglit  the  feeling  of  scorn 
and  contempt  for  the  coward.  There  are,  how^ever, 
cases  where  death  is  certain,  and  where  there  is  no 
support  like  that  of  public  opinion  to  sustain 
courage.  What  should  he  the  rule  of  duty  in  such 
cases  ?  Take  the  case  oA  a  person  who  has  been 
shipwrecked.  He  swims  the  sea  alone,  he  is  still 
clinging  to  a  spar,  but  realizes  that  in  a  few  minutes 
he  must  let  go,  his  strength  being  well-nigh  spent. 
"What  should  be  his  attitude  of  mind  in  that  su- 
preme moment.  The  forces  of  nature  are  about  to 
overwhelm  him.  What  motive  can  there  be  strong 
enough  to  support  bravery  in  that  moment  ?  The 
rule  of  duty  for  him  would  be :  Be  brave,  because 
as  a  human  being  you  are  superior  to  the  forces  of 
nature,  because  there  is  something  in  you — your 
moral  self — over  which  the  forces  of  nature  have  no 
power,  because  what  happens  to  you  in  your  private 
character  is  not  important,  but  it  is  important  that 
you  assert  the  dignity  of  humanity  to  the  last 
breath. 

After  having  discussed  courage,  define  fortitude. 
Point  out  the  importance  of  strength  of  will.  Con- 
trast the  strong  w411  with  the  feeble,  with  the  way- 
ward, the  irresolute,  and  also  the  obstinate  will,  for 
obstinacy  is  often  the  sign  of  weakness  rather  than 
of  strength.  See,  for  useful  hints  on  this  subject, 
Bain's  The  Emotions  and  the  Will. 

What  happens  to  thy  little  self  is  not  important. 
This  is  the  leading  thought  w^hich  shall  also  guide 


196        MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

US  in  the  discussion  of  Anger.  In  entering  on  the 
subject  of  anger  begin  by  describing  the  effects  of  it. 
Quote  the  passage  from  Seneca's  treatise  on  anger, 
showing  how  it  disfigures  the  countenance.  Point 
out  that  anger  provokes  anger  in  return,  and  is 
therefore  contrary  to  self-interest.  Call  to  your  aid 
the  social  motive  by  sh#wdng  that  under  the  in- 
fluence of  anger  we  often  overshoot  the  mark  and 
inflict  injuries  on  others  which  we  had  not  intended. 
Finally,  show  that  indulgence  in  anger  is  immoral. 
In  what  sense  is  it  immoral  ?  Anger  is  an  emotional 
reaction  against  injury.  When  a  child  hurts  its  foot 
against  a  stone,  it  is  often  so  unreasonably  angry  at 
the  stone  as  to  strike  it.  When  an  adult  person  re- 
ceives a  blow,  his  first  impulse  is  to  return  it.  This 
desire  to  return  injury  for  injury  is  one  of  the  charac- 
teristic marks  of  anger.  Another  mark  is  that  anger 
is  proportional  to  the  injury  received,  and  not  to  the 
fault  implied.  Every  one  knows  that  a  slight  fault  in 
another  may  occasion  a  great  injury  to  ourselves, 
w^hile,  on  the  other  hand,  a  serious  fault  may  only 
cause  us  a  slight  inconvenience.  Tlie  angry  person 
measures  his  resentment  by  the  injury,  and  not  by 
the  fault.  Anger  is  selfish.  It  is  fed  and  pampered 
by  the  delusion  that  our  pleasures  and  pains  are  of 
chief  importance.  Contrast  with  anger  the  moral 
feeling  of  indignation.  Anger  is  directed  against 
the  injury  received,  indignation  solely  against  the 
wrong  done.  The  immoral  feeling  prompts  us  to 
hate  wrong  because  it  has  been  inflicted  on  us. 
The  moral  feeling  prompts  us  to  hate  wrong  be- 


DUTIES  WHICH  RELATE  TO   PHYSICAL  LIFE.  I97 

cause  it  is  wrong.  Now,  to  the  extent  that  we 
sincerely  hate  wrong  we  shall  be  stirred  up  to  dimin- 
ish its  power  over  others  as  well  as  over  ourselves ; 
we  shall,  for  instance,  be  moved  to  save  the  evil 
doer  who  has  just  injured  us  from  the  tyranny  of 
his  evil  nature  ;  we  shall  aspire  to  become  the  moral 
physicians  of  tliose  who  have  hurt  us.  And  pre- 
cisely because  they  have  hurt  us,  they  have  a  unique 
claim  on  us.  We  who  know  better  than  others  the 
extent  of  their  disease  are  called  upon  more  than 
others  to  labor  with  a  view  to  their  cure.  In  this 
connection  the  rule  of  returning  good  for  evil  should 
be  explained.  This  rule  does  not  apply  alike  in  all 
cases,  though  the  spirit  of  it  should  always  inspire 
our  actions.  If  a  pickpocket  should  steal  our  purse, 
it  would  be  folly  to  hand  him  a  check  for  twice  the 
amount  he  has  just  stolen.  If  a  hardened  criminal 
should  draw  his  knife  and  wound  us  in  the  back,  it 
would  be  absurd  to  request  him  kindly  to  stab  us  in 
the  breast  also.  "We  should  in  this  case  not  be  curing 
him,  but  simply  confirming  him  in  his  evil  doing. 
The  rule  is :  Try  to  free  the  sinner  from  the  power 
of  sin.  In  some  cases  this  is  best  accomplished  by 
holding  his  hand,  as  it  were,  and  preventing  him 
from  carrying  out  the  intended  wrong.  In  other 
cases  by  depriving  him  of  his  liberty  for  a  season, 
subjecting  him  to  wholesome  discipline,  and  teaching 
him  habits  of  industry.  Only  in  the  case  of  those 
who  have  already  attained  a  higher  moral  plane,  and 
whose  conscience  is  sensitive,  does  the  rule  of  re- 
turning good  for  evil  apply  literally.     If  a  brother 


198       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF   CHILDREN. 

has  acted  in  an  unbrotherlj  way  toward  you,  do  you 
on  the  next  occasion  act  wholly  in  a  brotherly  way 
toward  him.  You  will  thereby  show  him  how  he 
ought  to  have  acted  and  awaken  the  better  nature  in 
him. 

Certain  practical  rules  for  the  control  of  anger 
may  be  given  to  the  pupil.  Suppress  the  signs  of 
anger ;  you  will  thereby  diminish  its  force.  Try  to 
gain  time  :  "  When  you  are  angry,  count  ten  before 
you  speak ;  when  you  are  very  angry,  count  a  hun- 
dred." Having  gained  time,  examine  rigorously 
into  your  own  conduct.  Ask  yourself  whether  you 
have  not  been  partly  to  blame.  If  you  find  that  you 
have,  then,  instead  of  venting  your  wrath  on  your 
enemy,  try  rather  to  correct  the  fault  which  has  pro- 
voked hostility.  But  if,  after  honest  self -scrutiny, 
you  are  able  to  acquit  yourself,  then  you  can  all  the 
more  readily  act  the  part  of  the  moral  physician, 
for  it  is  the  innocent  who  find  it  easiest  to  for- 
give. It  is  also  useful  to  cite  examples  of  persons 
who,  like  Socrates,  have  exhibited  great  self-control 
in  moments  of  anger  ;  and  to  quote  proverbs  treat- 
ing of  anger,  to  explain  these  proverbs  and  to  cause 
them  to  be  committed  to  memory.  I  advise,  indeed, 
that  proverbs  be  used  in  connection  with  all  the 
moral  lessons.  Of  the  manner  in  which  they  are  to 
be  used  I  shall  speak  later  on. 

The  last  of  the  present  group  of  duties  which  we 
shall  discuss  relates  to  the  feelings  of  vanity,  pride, 
humility.  Vanity  is  a  feeling  of  self-complacency 
based  on  external  advantages.     A  person  is  vain  of 


DUTIES  WHICH  RELATE   TO   PHYSICAL  LIFE.  I99 

his  dress  or  of  his  real  or  supposed  personal  charms. 
The  peacock  is  the  type  of  vanity.  Though  the 
admiration  of  others  ministers  to  vanity,  yet  it  is 
possible  to  be  vain  by  one's  self — before  a  mir- 
ror, for  instance.  The  feeling  of  pride,  on  the 
other  hand,  depends  upon  a  comparison  between 
self  and  others.  Pride  implies  a  sense  of  one's  own 
superiority  and  of  the  inferiority  of  others.  Both 
feelings  are  anti-moral.  They  spring,  like  moral 
cowardice  and  anger,  from  the  false  belief  that  this 
little  self  of  ours  is  of  very  great  importance.  There 
is  no  such  thing  as  proper  pride  or  honest  pride. 
The  word  pride  used  in  this  connection  is  a  mis- 
nomer. Yanity  is  spurious  self-esteem  based  on 
external  advantages.  Pride  is  spurious  self-esteem 
based  on  comparison  with  others.  Genuine  self- 
esteem  is  based  on  the  consciousness  of  a  distinction 
which  we  share  with  all  humanity — namely,  the 
capacity  and  the  duty  of  rational  development. 
This  genuine  self-esteem  has  two  aspects — the  one 
positive,  the  other  negative.  The  positive  aspect  is 
called  dignity,  the  negative  humility.  True  dignity 
and  true  humility  always  go  together.  The  sense 
of  dignity  arises  wdthin  us  when  we  remember  the 
aims  to  which  as  human  beings  we  are  pledged; 
the  sense  of  humility  can  not  fail  to  arise  when  we 
consider  how  infinitely  in  practice  we  all  fall  below 
those  aims.  Thus  wdiile  pride  depends  on  a  com- 
parison of  ourselves  with  others,  the  genuinely 
moral  feeling  is  excited  when  we  consider  our  rela- 
tion to  the  common  ends  of  mankind.     On  the  one 


200       MORAL   INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

hand,  we  are  indeed  privileged  to  pursue  those  ends, 
and  are  thereby  exalted  above  all  created  things  and 
above  the  whole  of  the  natural  world  with  all  its 
stars  and  suns.  Upon  this  consideration  is  founded 
the  sense  of  dignity.  On  the  other  hand,  we  can 
not  but  own  how  great  is  the  distance  which  sepa- 
rates even  the  best  of  us  from  the  goal,  and  this 
gives  rise  to  a  deep  sense  of  humility.  The  rule  of 
conduct  which  we  are  considering  is  a  rule  of  proper 
self-estimation.  Estimate  thy  worth  not  by  exter- 
nal advantages  nor  by  thy  pre-eminence  above  others, 
but  by  the  degree  of  energy  with  which  thou  pur- 
suest  the  moral  aims.  To  mark  off  the  distinction 
between  vanity  and  pride  on  the  one  hand  and 
dignity  on  the  other,  the  teacher  may  contrast  in 
detail  the  lives  of  Alcibiades  and  Socrates. 

In  connection  with  the  discussion  of  anger  and  of 
pride,  define  such  terms  as  hate,  envy,  malice.  Hatred 
is  anger  become  chronic.  Or  we  may  also  say  the 
state  of  mind  which  leads  to  passionate  paroxysms  in 
the  case  of  anger  is  called  hate  when  it  has  turned 
into  a  settled  inward  disposition.  In  other  re- 
spects the  characteristic  marks  of  both  are  the  same. 
Envy  is  the  obverse  of  pride.  Pride  is  based  on 
real  or  fancied  superiority  to  others.  Envy  is  due 
to  real  or  fancied  inferiority.  Pride  is  the  vice  of 
the  strong,  envy  of  the  weak.  Malice  is  pleasure  in 
the  loss  of  others  irrespective  of  our  gain. 

I  have  observed  on  a  previous  occasion  that  the 
feelings  considered  by  themselves  have  no  moral 
value.    Nevertheless,  we  have  now  repeatedly  spoken 


DUTIES  WHICH  RELATE  TO   PHYSICAL  LIFE.  201 

of  moral  feelings.  The  apparent  contradiction  dis- 
appears if  we  remember  that  all  feelings  of  the 
higher  order  presuppose,  and  are  the  echo  of  com- 
plex systems  of  ideas.  The  moral  feelings  are  those 
in  which  moral  ideas  have  their  resonance  ;  and 
those  feelings  are  valuable  in  virtue  of  the  ideas 
which  they  reflect.  The  feeling  of  moral  courage 
depends  on  the  idea  that  the  injuries  we  receive  at 
the  hands  of  fortune  are  not  important,  but  that  it 
is  important  for  us  to  do  credit  to  our  rational 
nature.  The  feeling  of  moral  indignation  depends 
on  the  idea  that  the  injuries  we  receive  from  our 
fellow-men  are  not  important,  but  that  it  is  impor- 
tant that  the  right  be  done  and  the  wrong  abated. 
The  feelings  of  moral  dignity  and  humility  com- 
bined depend  on  the  idea  that  it  does  not  signify 
whether  the  shadow  we  cast  in  the  world  of  men  be 
long  or  short,  but  only  that  we  live  in  the  light  of 
the  moral  aims. 


XIII. 

DUTIES  WHICH   EELATE   TO   OTHEES. 

Filial  Duties. 

We  began  our  course  of  moral  instruction  with 
the  self-regarding  duties,  and  assigned  the  second 
place  to  the  duties  which  relate  to  others.  There  is 
an  additional  reason  besides  the  one  already  given 
for  keeping  to  this  order. 

If  we  were  to  begin  with  the  commandments 
or  prohibitions  which  relate  to  others — e.  g.,  the 
sixth,  eighth,  and  ninth  commandments  of  the  Deca- 
logue— the  pupil  might  easily  get  the  impression 
that  these  things  are  forbidden  solely  because  they 
involve  injuries  to  others,  but  that  in  cases  where 
the  injury  is  inconsiderable,  or  not  apparent,  the 
transgression  of  moral  commandments  is  more  or 
less  excusable.  There  are  many  persons  who  seem 
unable  to  understand  that  it  is  really  sinful  to  de- 
fraud the  custom-house  or  to  neglect  paying  one's 
fare  in  a  horse-car.  And  why  ?  Because  the  in- 
jury inflicted  seems  so  insignificant.  Xow,  it  is 
of  the  utmost  consequence  to  impress  upon  the 
pupil  that  every  action  which  involves  a  violation 
of  duty  to  others  at  the  same  time  produces  a  change 
in  the  moral  quality  of  the  agent,  that  he  suffers  as 
well  as  the  one  whom  he  wrongs.     The  subjective 

(203) ' 


DUTIES  WHICH  RELATE  TO  OTHERS.       203 

and  objective  sides  of  transgression  can  not  in  point 
of  principle  and  onglit  not  in  actual  consciousness 
to  be  separated.  If,  therefore,  we  begin  by  en- 
forcing such  duties  as  temperance  the  pupil  will 
at  once  feel  that  the  violation  of  the  law  changes 
his  inward  condition,  degrades  him  in  his  own  eyes, 
lowers  him  in  the  scale  of  being.  The  true  stand- 
point from  which  all  moral  transgression  should  be 
regarded  will  thus  be  gained  at  the  outset,  and  it 
will  be  comparatively  easy  to  maintain  the  same 
point  of  view  when  we  come  to  speak  of  the  social 
duties. 

To  start  discussion  on  the  subject  of  the  filial 
duties,  relate  the  story  of  ^neas  carrying  his  aged 
father,  Anchises,  out  of  burning  Troy  ;  also  the  story 
of  Cleobis  and  Bito  (Herodotus,  i,  31).  Eecall  the 
devotion  of  Telemachus  to  Ulysses.  Tell  the  story 
of  Lear  and  his  daughters,  contrasting  the  conduct 
of  Regan  and  Goneril  with  that  of  Cordelia.  An 
excellent  story  to  tell,  especially  to  young  children, 
is  that  of  Dama.  ^neas  and  Telemachus  illustrate 
the  filial  spirit  as  expressed  in  services  rendered  to 
parents,  but  opportunity  to  be  of  real  service  to  par- 
ents is  not  often  offered  to  the  very  young.  The  story 
of  Dama  exhibits  the  filial  spirit  as  displayed  in  acts 
of  delicacy  and  consideration,  and  such  acts  are  within 
the  power  of  all  children.  The  story  is  located  in  Pal- 
estine, and  is  supposed  to  have  occurred  at  the  time 
when  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  was  still  standing. 
Dama  was  a  dealer  in  jewels,  noted  for  possessing 
the  rarest   and  richest  collection  anywhere   to   be 


204       MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

found.  It  happened  that  it  became  necessary  to 
replace  a  number  of  the  precious  stones  on  the 
breastplate  of  the  high  priest,  and  a  deputation  was 
sent  from  Jerusalem  to  wait  on  Dama  and  to  select 
from  his  stock  what  was  needed.  Dama  received 
his  distinguished  visitors  with  becoming  courtesy, 
and  on  learning  their  mission  spread  out  before 
them  a  large  number  of  beautiful  stones.  But  none 
of  these  w^ere  satisfactory.  The  stones  must  needs 
be  of  extraordinary  size  and  brilliancy.  None  but 
such  might  be  used.  When  Dama  was  informed 
of  this  he  reflected  a  moment,  then  said  that  in  a 
room  occupied  by  his  old  father  there  was  a  cabinet 
in  which  he  kept  his  most  precious  gems,  and  that 
among  them  he  was  sure  he  could  find  what  his 
visitors  wanted.  He  bade  them  delay  a  few  mo- 
ments, while  he  made  the  necessary  search.  But 
presently  he  returned  without  the  jewels.  He  ex- 
pressed the  greatest  regret,  but  declared  that  it  was 
impossible  to  oblige  them.  They  w^ere  astonished,  and, 
believing  it  to  be  a  mere  trader's  trick,  offered  him 
an  immense  price  for  the  stones.  He  answered  that 
he  was  extremely  sorry  to  miss  so  profitable  a  trans- 
action, but  that  it  was  indeed  beyond  his  power  to 
oblige  them  now — if  they  would  return  in  an  hour 
or  two  he  could  probably  suit  them.  They  declared 
that  their  business  admitted  of  no  delay ;  that  the 
breastplate  must  be  repaired  at  once,  so  that  the 
priest  might  not  be  prevented  from  discharging  his 
office.  And  so  he  allowed  them  to  depart.  It  appears 
that  when  Dama  opened  the  door  of  the  room  he 


DUTIES  WHICH  RELATE  TO   OTHERS.       205 

saw  his  old  father  asleep  on  the  couch.  He  tried  to 
enter  noiselessly,  but  the  door  creaked  on  its  hinges, 
and  the  old  man  started  in  his  sleep.  Dama  checked 
himself,  and  turned  back.  He  said,  "  I  will  forego 
the  gain  which  they  oifer  me,  but  I  will  not  disturb 
the  slumbers  of  my  father."  The  sleep  of  the  old 
father  was  sacred  to  Dama.  Children  are  often 
thoughtless  in  breaking  noisily  into  a  room  where 
father  or  mother  is  resting.  Such  a  story  tends 
to  instill  the  lesson  of  consideration  and  of  rever- 
ence. 

Eeverence  is  the  key-note  of  filial  duty.  You 
will  remember  that  Goethe,  in  Wilhelm  Meister,  in 
those  chapters  in  which  he  sketches  his  pedagogical 
ideal,  bases  the  entire  religious  and  moral  education 
of  the  young  on  a  threefold  reverence.  He  applies 
the  following  symbolism  :  The  pupils  of  the  ideal 
pedagogical  institution  are  required  to  take,  on  dif- 
ferent occasions,  three  different  attitudes.  IS^ow  they 
fold  their  arms  on  their  breast,  and  look  with  open 
countenance  upward  ;  again  they  fold  their  arms 
on  their  backs,  and  their  bright  glances  are  directed 
toward  the  earth ;  and  again  they  stand  in  a  row, 
and  their  faces  are  turned  to  the  right,  each  one 
looking  at  his  neighbor.  These  three  attitudes  are 
intended  to  symbolize  reverence  toward  what  is  above 
us,  toward  what  is  beneath  us,  and  toward  our  equals. 
These  three  originate  and  culminate  in  the  true  self- 
reverence.  In  speaking  of  filial  duty,  we  are  con- 
cerned with  reverence  toward  what  is  above  us. 
The  parent  is  the  physical,  mental,  and  moral  su- 


206        MORAL  IN-STRUCTION   OF   CHILDREN. 

perior  of  tlie  child.  It  is  his  duty  to  assist  the 
child's  physical,  mental,  and  moral  growth  ;  to  lift 
it  by  degrees  out  of  its  position  of  inferiority,  so 
that  it  may  attain  the  fullness  of  its  powers,  and  help 
to  carry  on  the  mission  of  mankind  w^hen  the  older 
generation  shall  have  retired  from  the  scene.  The 
duty  of  the  superior  toward  the  inferior  is  to  help 
him  to  rise  above  the  plane  of  inferiority.  The  re- 
ceptive and  appreciative  attitude  of  one  ^vho  is  thus 
helped  is  called  reverence.  But  w^e  must  approach 
the  nature  of  parental  duty  more  closely,  and  the 
following  reflections  may  put  us  in  the  way :  'No 
man  can  attain  the  intellectual  aims  of  life  with- 
out assistance.  A  scientist  inhabiting  a  desert  island 
and  limited  to  his  own  mental  resources  could  make 
little  headway.  The  scientist  of  to-day  utilizes  the 
accumulated  labors  of  all  the  generations  of  scien- 
tists that  have  preceded  him,  and  depends  for  the 
value  of  his  results  on  the  co-operation  and  the  sift- 
ing criticism  of  his  contemporaries.  And  as  no  one 
can  get  much  knowledge  without  the  help  of  others, 
so  no  one  is  justifled  in  seeking  knowdedge  for  his 
own  private  pleasure,  or  in  seeking  the  kind  of 
knowledge  that  happens  to  pique  his  vanity.  For 
instance,  it  is  a  violation  of  intellectual  duty  to  spend 
one's  time  in  acquiring  out-of-the  way  erudition 
which  is  useful  only  for  display.  The  pursuit  of 
knowledge  is  a  public  not  a  private  end.  Every 
scholar  and  man  of  science  is  bound  to  enlarge  as 
far  as  he  can  the  common  stock  of  truth,  to  add  to 
the  scientific  possessions  of  the  human  race.     But 


DUTIES  WHICH  RELATE  TO  OTHERS.       207 

in  order  to  do  this  he  must  question  himself  closely, 
that  he  may  discover  in  what  direction  his  special 
talent  lies,  and  may  apply  himself  sedulously  to  the 
cultivation  of  that.  For  it  is  by  specializing  his  efforts 
that  he  can  best  serve  the  general  interests  of  truth. 
The  same  holds  good  with  respect  to  the  pursuit  of 
social  ends — e.  g.,  the  correction  of  social  abuses  and 
the  promotion  of  social  justice.  The  reformer  of 
to-day  stands  on  the  shoulders  of  all  the  reformers 
of  the  past,  and  would  have  little  prospect  of  suc- 
cess in  any  efforts  he  may  make  without  the  co- 
operation and  criticism  of  numerous  co-workers. 
Nor,  again,  is  it  right  for  him  to  take  up  any  and 
every  project  of  reform  that  may  happen  to  strike 
his  fancy.  He  ought  rather  to  consider  what  par- 
ticular measures  under  existing  circumstances  are 
most  likely  to  advance  the  cause  of  progress,  and  in 
what  capacity  he  is  specially  fitted  to  promote  such 
measures.  Justice  and  truth  are  public,  not  private 
ends.  The  highest  aim  of  life  for  each  one  is  to 
offer  that  contribution  which  he,  as  an  individual^ 
is  peculiarly  fitted  to  make  toward  the  attainment 
of  the  public  ends  of  mankind.  The  individual 
when  living  only  for  himself,  absorbed  in  his  pri- 
vate pleasures  and  pains,  is  a  creature  of  little  worth  ; 
and  his  existence  is  of  little  more  account  in  the 
scheme  of  things  than  that  of  the  summer  insects, 
who  have  their  day  and  perish.  But  the  individual 
become  the  organ  of  humanity  acquires  a  lasting 
worth,  and  his  individuality  possesses  an  inviolable 
sanctity.     The   sacredness   of  individuality   in   the 


208       MORAL   INSTRUCTION  OF   CHILDREN. 

sense  just  indicated  is  a  leading  idea  of  ethics — per- 
haps it  would  not  be  too  much  to  say,  the  leading 
idea. 

And  now  we  can  state  more  exactly  the  nature 
of  parental  duty.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  parent, 
remembering  that  he  is  the  guardian  of  the  perma- 
nent welfare  of  his  child,  to  respect,  to  protect,  to 
develop  its  individuality — above  all,  to  discover  its 
individual  bent ;  for  that  is  often  latent,  and  requires 
to  be  persistently  searched  out.  It  is  the  duty  and 
the  privilege  of  the  parent  to  put  the  child,  as  it 
were,  in  possession  of  its  own  soul. 

And  upon  this  relationship  filial  reverence  is 
founded,  and  from  it  the  principal  filial  duties  may 
be  deduced.  Because  the  child  does  not  know  what 
is  best  for  it,  in  view  of  its  destiny,  as  described 
above,  it  is  bound  to  obey.  Obedience  is  the  first 
of  the  filial  duties.  Secondly,  the  child  is  bound  to 
show  gratitude  for  the  benefits  received  at  the 
hands  of  its  parents.  The  teacher  should  discuss 
with  his  pupils,  the  principal  benefits  conferred  by 
parents.  The  parents  supply  the  child  with  food, 
shelter,  and  raiment ;  they  nurse  it  in  sickness,  often 
sacrificing  sleep,  comfort,  and  health  for  its  sake. 
They  toil  in  order  that  it  may  want  nothing ;  they 
give  it,  in  their  fond  affection,  the  sweet  seasoning 
of  all  their  other  gifts.  It  is  well  to  bring  these 
facts  distinctly  before  the  pupil's  mind.  The  teacher 
can  do  it  with  a  better  grace  than  the  parent  him- 
self. The  teacher  can  strengthen  and  deepen  the 
home  feeling,  and  it  is  his  office  to  do  so.    The  pupil 


DUTIES  WHICH   RELATE   TO   OTHERS.       209 

should  go  home  from  his  moral  lesson  in  school  and 
look  upon  his  parents  with  a  new  realization  of  all 
that  he  owes  them,  with  a  new  and  deeper  tenderness. 
But  the  duty  of  gratitude  should  be  based,  above  all, 
upon  the  greatest  gift  which  the  child  obtains  from 
his  parents,  the  help  which  it  receives  toward  attain- 
ing the  moral  aim  of  its  existence. 

I  do  not  include  the  commandment  "  Love  thy 
parents  "  among  the  rules  of  filial  duty,  for  I  do  not 
think  that  love  can  be  commanded.  Love  follows  of 
itself  if  the  right  attitude  of  reverence,  obedience, 
gratitude  be  observed.  Love  is  the  sense  of  union 
with  another.  And  the  peculiarity  of  filial  love, 
whereby  it  is  distinguished  from  other  kinds  of  love, 
is  that  it  springs  from  union  with  persons  on  whom 
we  utterly  depend,  with  moral  superiors,  to  whom 
we  owe  the  fostering  of  our  spiritual  as  well  as  of  our 
physical  existence. 

But  how  shall  the  sentiment  of  filial  gratitude 
express  itself?  Gratitude  is  usually  displayed  by 
a  return  of  the  kindness  received.  But  the  kind- 
ness which  we  receive  from  parents  is  such  that  we 
can  never  repay  it.  It  is  of  the  nature  of  a  debt 
which  we  can  never  hope  fully  to  cancel.  We  can 
do  this  much — when  our  parents  grow  old,  we  can 
care  for  them,  and  smooth  the  last  steps  that- lead  to 
the  grave.  And  when  we  ourselves  have  grown  to 
manhood  and  womanhood,  and  have  in  turn  become 
parents,  we  can  bestow  upon  our  own  offspring  the 
same  studious  and  intelligent  care  which  our  parents, 

according  to  the  light  they  had,  bestowed  on  us,  and 
14 


210        MORAL   INSTRUCTION   OF   CHILDREN. 

thus  ideally  repay,  them  by  doing  for  others  what 
they  did  for  us.  ^ut  this  is  a  ]3oint  which  concerns 
only  adults.  As  lor  young  children,  they  can  show 
their  gratitude  in  part  by  slight  services,  delicacies 
of  behavior,  the  chief  value  of  which  consists  in  the 
sentiment  that  inspires  them,  but  principally  by  a 
willing  acceptance  of  parental  guidance,  and  by 
earnest  eJfforts  in  the  direction  of  their  own  intel- 
lectual and  moral  improvement.  There  is  no  love 
so  unselfish  as  parental  love.  There  is  nothing 
which  true  parents  have  more  at  heart  than  the 
highest  welfare  of  their  children.  There  is  no  way 
in  which  a  child  can  please  father  and  mother  bet- 
ter than  by  doing  that  which  is  for  its  own  highest 
good.  The  child's  progress  in  knowledge  and  in 
moral  excellence  are  to  every  parent  the  most  ac- 
ceptable tokens  of  filial  gratitude.  And  this  leads  me 
to  an  important  point,  to  which  reference  has  already 
been  made.  It  has  been  .stated  that  each  period  of 
life  has  its  distinct  set  of  ;duties  ;  furthermore,  that 
in  each  period  there  is  one^.paramount  duty,  around 
which  the  others  may  be  grouped  ;  and,  lastly,  tliat  at 
each  successive  stage  it  is  important  to  reach  back- 
ward and  to  bring  the  ethical  system  of  the  preced- 
ing period  into  harmony  wiSi  the  new  system.  Of 
this  last  point  we  are  now  in  a  position  to  give  a 
simple  illustration.  The  paramount  duty  of  the 
school  period  is  to  acquire  knowledge;  the  para- 
mount duty  of  the  previous  period  is  to  reverence 
parents.  But,  as  has  just  been  shown,  reverence 
toward  parents  at  this  stage  is  best  exhibited   by 


■  DUTIES   WHICH   RELATE   TO   OTHERS.       211 

Cionscientious  study,  and  thus  the  two  systems  are 
merged  into  one.^ 

The  Fraternal  Duties. 

Thus  much  concerning  the  filial  relations.  We 
pass  on  to  speak  of  the  fraternal  duties ;  the  du- 
ties of  brothers  to  brothers  and  sisters  to  sisters ; 
of  brothers  to  sisters  and  conversely ;  of  older  to 
younger  brothers  and  sisters  and  conversely.  The 
fraternal  duties  are  founded  upon  the  respect  which 
equals  owe  to  equals.  The  brotherly  relation  is  of 
immense  pedagogic  value,  inasmuch  as  it  educates 
us  for  the  fulfillment  later  on  of  our  duties  toward 
all  equals,  be  they  kinsmen  or  not.  As  between 
brothers,  the  respect  of  each  for  the  rights  of  the 
other  is  made  comparatively  easy  by  natural  incli- 
nation. The  tie  of  blood,  close  and  constant  asso- 
ciation in  the  same  house,  common  experience  of 
domestic  pleasures  and  sorrows — all  this  tends  to 
link  the  hearts  of  the  brothers  together,  and  thus  the 
first  lessons  in  one  of  the  hardest  duties  are  given 
by  Love,  the  gentlest  of  school-masters.  But  the 
word  equality  must  not  be  misconceived.  Equal- 
ity is  not  to  be  taken  in  its  mathematical  sense. 
One  brother  is  gifted  and  may  eventually  rise  to 
wealth  and  fame,  another  is   Nature's   step-child ; 

*  It  may  also  be  pointed  out  to  the  pupil  that  a  part  of  the 
task  of  intellectual  and  moral  training,  which  originally  belongs 
entirely  to  the  parents,  has  by  them  been  intrusted  to  the  teach- 
ers, and  that  something  of  the  reverence  which  belongs  to  the 
former  is  now  due  to  the  latter. 


212       MORAL   INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

one  sister  is  beautiful,  anotlier  the  opposite.  If  the 
idea  of  equality  be  j^ressed  to  a  literal  meaning,  it  is 
sure  to  give  rise  to  ugly  feelings  in  the  hearts  of 
the  less  fortunate.  How,  then,  shall  we  define 
equality  in  the  moral  sense?  A  superior,  as  we 
have  seen,  renders  services  which  the  inferior  can 
not  adequately  return.  Equals  are  those  who  are 
so  far  on  the  same  level  as  to  be  capable  of  render- 
ing mutual  services,  alike  in  importance,  though  not 
necessarily  the  same  in  kind.  Equals  are  correlative 
to  one  another.  The  services  of  each  are  comple- 
mentary to  those  of  the  other.  The  idea  of  mutual 
service^  therefore,  is  characteristic  of  the  relation  of 
brothers,  and  the  rule  of  duty  may  be  formulated 
simply.  Serve  one  another.  From  this  follow^  all 
the  minor  commands  and  prohibitions  \yhich  are 
usually  impressed  upon  children,^  and  also  the  far 
loftier  counsels  which  apply  only  to  adults. 

It  will  be  perceived  that  the  rule  of  mutual  serv- 
ice, when  carried  to  its  highest  applications,  presup- 
poses the  principle  of  individual  differentiation,  to 
which  w^e  have  already  attached  so  much  weight. 
This  principle  is  fundamental  to  fraternal  as  well  as 
to  paternal  and  filial  duty.  For  precisely  to  the  ex- 
tent that  brothers  are  distinctly  individualized  can 
they  supplement  each  other  and  correlate  their  mutual 

*  Do  not  quarrel  over  your  respective  rights ;  rather  be  more 
eager  to  secure  the  rights  of  your  brother  than  your  own.  Do 
not  triumph  in  your  brother's  disgrace  or  taunt  him  with  his 
failings,  but  rather  seek  to  build  up  his  self-respect.  Help  one 
another  in  your  tasks,  etc. 


DUTIES  WHICH   RELATE   TO   OTHERS.        213 

services.  One  can  not  indeed  overlook  the  patent  fact 
that  brothers  who  are  unlike  in  nature  frequently 
repel  each  other,  and  that  in  such  cases  the  very 
closeness  of  the  relation  often  becomes  a  source  of 
extreme  irritation,  and  even  of  positive  agony.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  surer  sign  of  moral 
ripeness  than  the  ability  to  enter  into,  to  under- 
stand, to  appreciate  a  nature  totally  unlike  one's 
own,  and  thus  to  some  extent  to  appropriate  its  ex- 
cellences. The  very  fact,  therefore,  that  we  at  first 
feel  ourselves  repelled  should  be  taken  as  a  hint  that 
this  natural  repulsion  is  to  be  overcome.  For  every 
type  of  character  needs  its  opposite  to  correct  it. 
The  idealist,  for  instance,  needs  the  realist,  if  he 
would  keep  his  balance.  And  our  uncongenial 
brothers,  precisely  because  they  are  at  first  uncon- 
genial, if 'we  will  but  remember  that  they  are,  after 
all,  our  brothers,  and  that  it  is  our  duty  to  come  into 
harmonious  relations  with  them,  can  best  help  us  to 
this  fine  self -conquest,  this  true  enrichment  and  en- 
largement of  our  moral  being. 

A  word  may  be  added  as  a  caution  to  parents 
and  teachers.  The  way  to  create  brotherly  feeling 
among  the  young  is  to  treat  them  impartially,  to 
love  them  with  an  equal  love.  Those  who  love  and 
are  beloved  by  the  same  person  are  strongly  in- 
duced to  love  one  another.  In  the  next  place,  when 
disputes  arise,  as  is  perhaps  unavoidable,  the  parent 
or  teacher  should,  as  a  rule,  enter  patiently  into  the 
cause  and  not  cut  off  inquiry  because  the  whole 
matter   seems   trivial.     The  subject  matter   of  the 


214       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

dispute  may  be  insignificant  enough,  but  the  satis- 
faction of  the  sense  of  justice  of  the  young  is  of 
the  greatest  significance.  When  the  sense  of  justice 
is  outraged,  be  the  cause  never  so  trivial,  a  f eehng  of 
distrust  against  the  parent  is  generated,  and  of  in- 
cipient hatred  against  the  brother  who  may  have 
provoked  the  unjust  decision. 

I  have  yet  to  speak  of  the  duties  of  older  to 
younger  brothers  and  sisters.  If  it  is  difiicult  to 
serve  two  masters,  it  is  hardly  pleasant  to  be  asked 
to  serve  half  a  dozen.  The  youngest  children 
in  a  large  family  are  often  placed  in  this  posi- 
tion. There  is,  in  the  first  place,  the  authority  of 
the  parents,  which  must  be  respected ;  then,  in  ad- 
dition, each  of  the  grown-up  sons  and  daughters  is 
apt  to  try  to  exercise  a  little  authority  on  his  or  her 
own  account.  The  younger  ones  naturally  resent 
this  petty  despotism,  and  disobedience  and  angry 
recriminations  are  the  unpleasant  consequences.  It 
is  often  necessary  that  elder  sons  and  daughters 
should  have  partial  charge  of  the  younger.  They 
can  in  all  cases  make  their  authority  acceptable  by 
representing  it  as  delegated,  by  having  it  understood 
that  they  regard  themselves  merely  as  substitutes  in 
the  parents'  place.  There  must  be  unity  of  influ- 
ence in  the  home,  or  else  the  moral  development  of 
the  young  will  be  sadly  interfered  with.  There 
must  be  only  a  single  center  of  authority,  repre- 
sented by  the  parents,  and  all  minor  exercise  of  au- 
thority should  be  referred  back  to  that  center. 
"  Father  and  mother  wish  me  to  help  you "  ;  "  Fa- 


DUTIES  WHICH   RELATE   TO   OTHERS.       215 

ther  and  mother  will  be  pleased  if  you  do  so  and  so ; 
let  me  try  to  show  you  how" — if  the  method  of 
management  implied  in  such  words  as  these  be 
adopted,  the  younger  children  will  look  upon  the 
elder  as  their  friends  and  be  glad  to  accept  advice 
and  direction. 

Lastly,  a  word  about  the  relation  between  broth- 
ers and  sisters,  and  conversely.  This  relationship  is 
qualified  by  the  difference  of  sex.  A  certain  chivalry 
characterizes  the  attitude  of  the  brother  toward  the 
sister,  a  certain  motherliness  that  of  the  sister  to- 
ward the  brother.  The  relation  may  be  and  often 
is  a  very  beautiful  one.  The  peculiar  moral  re- 
sponsibility connected  with  it  is  that  the  sister  is 
usually  the  first  woman  whom  the  brother  knows  at 
all  intimately  and  as  an  equal,  and  that  his  notions 
of  womanhood  are  largely  influenced  by  the  traits 
which  he  sees  in  her,  wdiile  the  brother  is  usually  the 
first  man  whom  the  sister  knows  as  a  companion,  and 
her  ideas  of  men  are  colored  by  what  she  sees  in 
him. 

To  illustrate  the  fraternal  relation  I  have  been 
in  the  habit  of  recalling  the  stories  from  the  Old 
Testament  which  bear  upon  this  subject.  I  have 
also  given  an  account  of  the  life  of  the  brothers 
Jacob  and  William  Grimm.  There  was  only  a 
year's  difference  between  them,  Jacob  Grimm, 
in  the  eulogy  on  William,  which  he  delivered  be- 
fore the  Berlin  Academy  in  the  year  1860,  says  : 
"  During  the  slowly  creeping  years  of  our  school 
life  we  slept  in  the  same  bed  and  occupied   the 


216       MORAL   INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

same  room.  There  we  sat  at  one  and  the  same 
table  studying  our  lessons.  Later  on  there  were  two 
tables  and  two  beds  in  the  same  room ;  and  later 
still,  during  the  entire  period  of  our  riper  man- 
hood, we  still  continued  to  occupy  two  adjoining 
rooms,  always  under  the  same  roof."  All  their 
property,  and  even  their  books,  they  held  in  com- 
mon ;  what  belonged  to  the  one  belonged  to  the 
other.  They  visited  the  university  together  in  the 
same  year  ;  they  both  took  up,  in  deference  to  their 
mother's  wish,  the  same  study,  that  of  the  law, 
which  they  alike  hated,  and  then  they  turned  in 
common  to  the  study  of  philology,  in  which  both 
delighted  and  both  achieved  such  great  distinction.' 
They  published  their  first  important  works  in  the 
same  year ;  and  as  they  slept  together  in  the  same 
bed  when  they  were  children,  so  now  they  sleep 
side  by  side  in  the  grave. 

I  refer  to  the  story  of  Lear  and  his  daughters 
to  show  that  the  common  love  for  the  parents  is 
necessary  to  sustain  the  love  of  brothers  and  sisters 
toward  one  another.  Lear  had  estranged  the  af- 
fection of  Goneril  and  Eegan  through  his  partiality 
for  Cordelia.  The  two  women,  who  had  no  love 
for  their  father,  hated  each  other ;  and  Goneril, 
who  was  the  first  to  cast  him  out,  poisoned  her 
sister. 

To  illustrate  the  relations  of  brothers  to  sisters, 
I  give  an  account  of  tlie  beautiful  lives  of  Charles 
and  Mary  Lamb.  To  show  the  redeeming  power  of 
womanhood  as  represented  in  a  sister,  I  explain  to 


DUTIES  WHICH   RELATE  TO  OTHERS.       217 

older  pupils  the  story  which  underlies  Goethe's 
drama  of  Iphigenia.  Orestes  is  sick ;  and  what  is 
his  malady?  His  soul  has  been  poisoned  by  re- 
morse. Believing  himself  to  be  the  executive  arm 
of  justice,  he  committed  a  great  crime,  and  now  he 
is  torn  by  the  pangs  of  conscience,  and  his  mind  is 
forever  dwelling  on  that  scene  in  which  he  was  a 
fatal  actor.  And  how  does  Iphigenia  heal  him? 
She  heals  him  by  the  clear  truthfulness  of  her 
nature,  which  the  play  is  designed  to  bring  out. 
With  the  light  of  genuine  womanhood  which  ema- 
nates from  her  she  illuminates  anew  his  darkened 
path.  By  the  force  of  the  good  which  he  learns  to 
recognize  in  her  he  is  led  to  a  new  trust  in  the  re- 
deeming power  of  the  good  in  himself,  and  thus  to 
start  out  afresh  in  a  life  of  courage,  hope,  and  active 
effort.  The  teacher  should  analyze  and  cause  to  be 
committed  to  memory  the  various  beautiful  prov- 
erbs which  bear  upon  the  subject  of  fraternal  duty. 


XIV. 
DUTIES   TOWAED   ALL   MEK 

JUSTICE    AXD    CHARITY. 

Justice. — The  subject  of  justice  is  a  difficult 
one  to  treat.  Justice  in  the  legal  sense  is  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  justice  in  the  moral  sense.  We  are 
concerned  only  with  the  latter.  How  much  of  it 
can  we  hope  to  include  in  such  a  course  of  instruc- 
tion as  this  ?  We  can,  I  think,  explain  the  essential 
principle  and  give  a  few  of  its  most  important  ap- 
plications. What  is  this  principle  'i  Human  society 
is  an  organism,  and  the  perfection  of  it  depends 
upon  the  degree  to  which  the  parts  related  are  differ- 
entiated. Unity  of  organization  is  the  end,  differen- 
tiation is  the  means.  The  serving  of  universal  ends 
is  the  aim,  the  emphasizing  of  individuality  the  means. 
The  principle  which  underlies  the  laws  of  justice  I 
t^ke  to  be  respect  for  individuality  of  others.  And 
this  may  be  expressed  in  the  rule,  Respect  the  indi- 
viduality of  every  human  being.  It  might,  indeed, 
appear  at  first  sight  as  if  justice  had  to  do  only  w^ith 
those  points  in  which  all  men  are  alike,  and  took  no 
notice  of  the  differences  that  subsist  between  them. 
Thus  justice  enjoins  respect  for  the  life  of  others ; 
and  in  regard  to  this  all  men  are  exactly  on  a  par,  all 
men  are  equally  entitled  to  live.     But  justice  also 

(218) 


DUTIES  TOWARD  ALL  MEN.  219 

commands  lis  to  respect  the  convictions  of  others, 
however  different  they  may  be  from  our  own.  And 
it  is  but  a  finer  sense  of  justice  which  keeps  us  from 
intruding  on  the  privacy  of  others,  which  leads  us  to 
show  a  proper  consideration  for  the  ways  and  idiosyn- 
crasies of  others,  and  in  general  to  refrain  from  en- 
croaching on  the  personality  of  others.  The  prin- 
ciple of  justice  may  also  be  expressed  in  the  rule. 
Do  not  interfere  wdth  the  individual  development 
of  any  one. 

Applications  or  the  Principle  of  Justice. — 
1.  Do  not  MIL  By  taking  away  the  life  of  a  human 
being  we  should  of  course  cut  off  all  chance  of  that 
person's  further  development.  This  requires  no  com- 
ment. But  certain  casuistical  questions  arise  in  con- 
nection with  this  command.  Is  it  right  to  kill  an- 
other in  self-defense  ?  The  difficulty  involved  might 
be  put  in  this  way  :  A  burglar  breaks  into  your  house 
by  night  and  threatens  to  kill  you.  You  have  a 
weapon  at  hand  and  can  save  yourself  by  killing 
him.  Now  it  is  evident  that  one  of  two  lives  must 
be  taken.  But  would  it  not  be  more  moral  on  your 
part  to  say  :  I,  at  least,  w^ill  not  break  the  command- 
ment. I  would  rather  be  killed  than  kill  ?  This  ques- 
tion serves  to  show  to  what  absurdities  a  purely  for- 
mal principle  in  ethics  can  lead,  as  we  have  already 
seen  in  the  discussion  of  truthfulness.  The  problem 
of  the  duel  and  that  of  the  taking  of  the  life  of 
others  in  war  also  belong  under  this  head,  but  w^ill 
be  reserved  for  the  advanced  course. 

2.  Resjpeot  the  personal  liberty  of  others.   Slavery, 


220       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

under  whatever  form,  is  an  outrage  on  justice.  The 
slave  is  degraded  to  be  the  mere  instrument  of  his 
master's  profit  or  pleasure.  Let  the  teacher  point 
out  in  what  particulars  the  slave  is  wronged,  and 
show  the  evil  eilects  of  the  institution  of  slavery  on 
the  character  of  the  master  as  well  as  of  the  slave. 
Question — Is  it  right  to  speak  of  wage-slavery,  for 
instance,  in  cases  where  tlie  hours  of  labor  are  so 
prolonged  as  to  leave  no  time  for  higher  interests, 
or  where  the  relations  of  the  laborer  to  his  employer 
are  such  as  to  impair  his  moral  independence  ? 

3.  Hespect  the  property  of  others.  Unless  we 
are  careful  we  may  at  this  point  commit  a  grave 
wrong.  Upon  what  moral  considerations  shall  the 
right  of  property  be  based  ?  The  school,  especially 
the  moral  lessons  which  are  imparted  in  it,  should 
certainly  not  be  placed  in  the  service  of  vested  in- 
terests. On  the  other  hand,  the  school  should  not 
fill  the  pupils'  minds  with  economic  theories,  which 
they  are  incapable  of  understanding,  and  of  which 
the  truth,  the  justice,  the  feasibility  are  still  hotly 
disputed.  We  are  therefore  taking  a  very  respon- 
sible step  in  introducing  the  idea  of  property  at  all 
into  our  moral  lessons.  And  yet  it  is  too  great  and 
important  to  be  ignored.  Some  writers  have  ad- 
vanced the  theory  that  the  right  in  question  rests 
on  labor,  and  they  regard  it  as  a  self-evident  proposi- 
tion, one  which,  therefore,  might  safely  be  taught  to 
the  young,  that  every  person  is  entitled  to  the  prod- 
ucts of  his  labor.  Jules  Simon  says  (see  Paul  Janet, 
Elements   of   Morals,  English   translation,   p.  Q&)i 


DUTIES  TOWARD  ALL  MEN.  221 

"  This  earth  was  worth  nothing  and  produced  noth- 
ing. I  dug  the  soil,  I  brought  from  a  distance  fer- 
tilizing earth  ;  it  is  now  fertile.  This  fertility  is  my 
work  ;  by  fertilizing  it,  I  made  it  mine."  American 
writers  have  eloquent  passages  to  the  same  effect. 
But  this  proposition  certainly  does  not  appear  to  me 
self-evident,  nor  even  true.  Chiefly  for  the  reason 
that "  my  labor  "  and  "  my  skill "  are  not  original,  but 
derivative  factors  in  production.  They  are  very 
largely  the  result  of  the  labor  and  the  skill  of  genera- 
tions that  have  preceded  me,  that  have  built  up  in  me 
this  brain,  this  skill,  this  power  of  application.  The 
products  of  my  labor  would  indeed  belong  to  me  if 
my  labor  were  really  mine,  if  it  w^ere  not  to  an  in- 
calculable extent  the  consequent  of  social  antece- 
dents, in  regard  to  which  I  can  not  claim  the  least 
merit.  The  attempt  to  found  the  rewards  of  labor 
upon  the  merit  of  the  laborer  seems  to  me  a  per- 
fectly hopeless  one. 

Let  me  add  that  it  is  one  thing  to  say  that  he 
who  will  not  work  shall  not  eat,  and  a  very  different 
thing  to  say  that  he  who  works  shall  enjoy  what  he 
has  produced.  The  former  statement  merely  signi- 
fies that  he  who  will  not  contribute  his  share  toward 
sustaining  and  improving  human  society  is  not  en- 
titled to  any  part  in  the  advantages  of  the  social  order, 
though  the  charity  of  his  fellow-men  may  grant  him, 
under  certain  conditions  and  in  the  hope  of  chang- 
ing his  disposition,  what  he  is  not  entitled  to  as  of 
right.  But  the  question  what  the  share  of  the  la- 
borer ought  to  be  is  one  that  can  not  be  settled  in 


222       MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

tlie  rough-and-ready  manner  above  suggested,  and 
the  considerations  involved  are,  in  truth,  far  too 
numerous  and  complex  to  be  introduced  at  this 
stage.  The  whole  question  will  be  reopened  later  on. 
For  the  present  it  must  suffice  to  state  certain  purely 
moral  considerations  on  which  the  right  of  prop- 
erty may  be  made  to  rest.  The  following  are  the 
ideas  which  I  should  seek  to  develop  :  Property  is 
justified  by  its  uses.  Its  uses  are  to  support  the  ex- 
istence and  promote  the  mental  and  moral  growth 
of  man.  The  physical  life  itself  depends  on  prop- 
erty. Even  in  a  communistic  state  the  food  any 
one  eats  must  be  his  property  in  the  sense  that 
every  one  else  is  debarred  from  using  it.  The  moral 
life  of  men  depends  on  property.  The  moral  life  is 
rooted  in  the  institution  of  the  family,  and  the  fam- 
ily could  not  exist  without  a  separate  domicile  of  its 
own  and  the  means  of  providing  for  its  dependent 
members.  The  independence  and  the  growth  of 
the  intellect  depend  on  property.  In  short,  prop- 
erty is  an  indispensable  adjunct  of  jpersonality , 
This  I  take  to  be  its  moral  basis.  What  I  here  in- 
dicate, however,  is  an  ideal  right  which  the  existing 
state  of  society  by  no  means  reflects.  By  what 
methods  we  may  best  approach  this  ideal,  whether 
by  maintaining  and  improving  the  system  of  private 
property  in  land  or  by  state  ownership,  whether  by 
capitalistic  or  socialistic  production,  etc.,  are  ques- 
tions of  means,  not  of  ends,  and  raise  problems  in 
social  science  with  which  here  we  have  not  to  deal. 
Question — If  the    present  social   arrangements 


DUTIES  TOWARD  ALL  MEN.  223 

are  not  morally  satisfactory,  if  e.  g.,  certain  per- 
sons possess  property  to  which  on  moral  grounds 
they  are  not  entitled,  should  not  the  commandment 
against  stealing  be  suspended  so  far  as  they  are  con- 
cerned ?  The  present  system  of  rights,  imperfect  as 
it  is,  is  the  result  of  social  evolution,  and  denotes  the 
high-water  mark  of  the  average  ethical  consciousness 
of  the  world  up  to  date.  Eespect  for  the  existing 
system  of  rights,  however,  imperfect  as  it  is,  is  the 
prime  condition  of  obtaining  a  better  system. 

4.  Respect  the  mental  liberty  of  others.  Upon 
this  rule  of  justice  is  founded  the  right  to  freedom 
of  speech,  freedom  of  the  press,  and  what  is  called 
the  freedom  of  conscience.  Point  out  the  limita- 
tions of  these  various  rights  which  follow  from  the 
fact  of  their  universality. 

5.  Respect  the  reputation  of  your  fellow-men. 
Refrain  from  backbiting  and  slander.  Bridle  your 
tongue.  This  undoubtedly  is  a  rule  of  justice. 
"  Who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash,"  etc.  The  re- 
spect of  our  fellow-men  is  in  itself  a  source  of  hap- 
piness and  a  moral  prop,  and,  besides,  the  greatest 
help  in  achieving  the  legitimate  purposes  of  life. 
He  who  has  the  confidence  of  others  has  wings  to 
bear  him  along.  He  who  is  suspected  for  any  rea- 
son, true  or  false,  strikes  against  invisible  barriers 
at  every  step.  ISTothing  is  so  sensitive  as  character — 
a  mere  breath  may  tarnish  it.  It  is  therefore  the 
gravest  kind  of  injury  to  our  neighbors  to  dissem- 
inate damaging  rumors,  to  throw  out  dark  hints 
and   suggestions  with  respect  to  them,  to  impugn 


224       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OP  CHILDREN. 

their  motives.  But  is  it  not  a  duty  to  denounce  evil 
and  evil-doers  and  to  put  tlie  innocent  on  their  guard 
against  wolves  in  sheep's  clothing  ?  Yes,  if  we  are 
sure  that  our  own  motives  are  perfectly  disinter- 
ested, that  we  are  not  in  the  least  prompted  by  per- 
sonal spite  or  prejudice.  For  if  we  dislike  a  person, 
as  every  one  knows,  we  can  not  judge  him  fairly,  we 
are  prone  to  attribute  to  him  all  manner  of  evil 
qualities  and  evil  intents  which  exist  only  in  our  own 
jaundiced  imagination.  Very  often  a  person  against 
whom  we  had  at  first  conceived  a  distinct  dislike 
proves  on  nearer  acquaintance  to  be  one  whom  we 
can  esteem  and  even  love.  We  should  be  warned  by 
such  experiences  to  hold  our  judgments  in  suspense, 
and  not  to  allow  injurious  words  to  pass  the  lips. 
The  vast  moral  importance  of  being  able  to  hold 
one's  tongue,  the  golden  resources  of  silence,  should 
be  emphasized  by  the  teacher. 

A  series  of  lessons  on  good  manners  may  be  in- 
troduced at  this  point.  The  ceremonies  of  social 
intercourse,  the  various  forms  in  which  refined  peo- 
ple show  their  deference  for  each  other,  the  rule  not 
to  obtrude  self  in  conversation,  and  the  like,  are  so 
many  illustrations  of  the  respect  which  we  owe  to 
the  personality  of  our  fellow-men.  Good  manners 
are  the  sesthetic  counterpart  of  good  morals,  and 
the  connection  between  the  two  can  easily  be  made 
plain. 

6.  Speak  the  truth.  Inward  truthfulness  is  a 
self-regarding  duty  ;  social  truthfulness  is  a  form  of 
justice.     Words   represent   facts.      The   words   we 


DUTIES  TOWARD  ALL  MEN.  225 

speak  to  our  neighbor  are  used  by  him  as  building- 
stones  in  the  architecture  of  his  daily  conduct.  We 
have  no  right  to  defeat  the  purposes  of  his  life,  to 
weaken  the  dwelling  he  is  erecting,  by  supplying 
him  with  worthless  building  material. 

Upon  exactly  the  same  ground  is  based  the  duty 
of  keeping  one's  promises,  viz.,  that  our  fellow-men 
build  on  our  promises.  Promises  made  in  a  legal 
form  are  called  contracts  and  can  be  enforced. 
Promises  not  made  in  legal  form  are  equally  bind- 
ing from  a  moral  point  of  view.  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind,  however,  that  conditional  promises  are  can- 
celed when  the  stipulated  conditions  do  not  oc- 
cur, and,  furthermore,  that  there  are  certain  tacit 
conditions  implied  in  all  promises  whatsoever.  A 
person  who  has  promised  to  visit  a  friend  on  a  cer- 
tain day  and  dies  in  the  interval  is  not  supposed  to 
have  broken  his  promise ;  nor  if  any  one  makes  a 
similar  promise  and  a  heavy  snowstorm  should  block 
the  roads  or  if  he  should  be  confined  to  his  bed  by 
sickness  is  he  likely  to  be  accused  of  breaking  his 
promise.  The  physical  possibility  of  fulfilling 
them  is  a  tacit  condition  in  all  promises.  It  is 
also  a  tacit  condition  in  all  promises  that  it  shall 
be  morally  possible  or  consistent  with  morality 
to  keep  them.  A  young  man  who  has  promised 
to  join  a  gang  of  burglars  in  an  attack  on  a  bank 
and  who  repents  at  the  last  moment  is  morally 
justified  in  refusing  to  keep  his  pledge.  His  crime 
consisted  in  having  made  the  promise  in  the  first 

place,  not  in  refusing  to  fulfill  it  at  the  last  moment. 
15 


226       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF   CHILDREN. 

A  person,  however,  who  promises  to  pay  usurious 
interest  on  a  loan  of  money  and  who  then  takes  ad 
vantage  of  the  laws  against  usury  to  escape  payment 
is  a  double-dyed  rogue,  for  his  intention  is  to  cheat, 
and  he  uses  the  cloak  of  virtue  as  a  screen  in  order 
to  cheat  with  impunity.  Let  the  teacher  discuss 
the  casuistical  question  wdiether  it  is  right  to  keep 
a  promise  made  to  robbers— e.  g.,  if  we  should  fall 
into  the  hands  of  brigands,  and  they  should  make  it 
a  condition  of  our  release  that  we  shall  not  betray 
their  hiding-place. 

Justice  is  based  on  positive  respect  for  the  in- 
dividuality of  others,  but  its  commands  may  all  be 
expressed  in  the  negative  form  :  Do  not  kill,  do  not 
infringe  the  liberty,  the  property  of  others,  do  not 
slander,  do  not  lie,  etc.  It  is  often  held,  however, 
that  there  is  a  positive  as  well  as  a  negative  side  to 
justice,  and  the  two  sides  are  respectively  expressed 
in  the  formulas :  Neminem  laede  and  suum  cuique — • 
Hurt  no  one  and  give  every  one  his  due.  Of  positive 
or  distributive  justice  we  meet  with  such  examples 
as  the  following :  In  awarding  a  prize  the  jury  is 
bound  in  justice  to  give  the  award  in  favor  of  the 
most  deserving  competitor.  The  head  of  a  depart- 
ment in  filling  a  vacancy  is  bound  in  justice  to  avoid 
favoritism,  to  promote  that  one  of  his  subordinates 
who  deserves  promotion,  etc.  But  it  seems  to  me  that 
this  distinction  is  unimportant.  Give  to  each  one 
his  due  is  tantamount  to  Do  not  deprive  any  one  of 
what  is  due  him.  If  the  prize  or  the  place  belongs 
to  A  we  should,  by  withholding  it  from  him,  invade 


DUTIES  TOWARD  ALL  MEN.  227 

the  rights  of  A  as  much  as  if  we  took  money  out 
of  his  purse.  The  commands  are  negative,  but  the 
virtue  impHed  is  positive  enough,  because  it  de- 
pends on  positive  respect  for  human  nature.  Do 
not  infringe  upon  the  sacred  territory  of  another's 
personaKty  is  the  rule  of  justice  in  all  cases. 

Charity. — How  shall  we  distinguish  charity 
from  justice  ?  It  is  said  that  every  one  is  justified 
in  claiming  from  others  what  belongs  to  him  as  a 
matter  of  right,  but  that  no  one  can  exact  charity. 
Tlie  characteristic  mark  of  charity  is  supposed  to  be 
that  it  is  freely  given.  But  if  I  happen  to  be  rich 
and  can  afford  to  supply  the  need  of  another  am  I 
not  morally  bound  to  do  so,  and  has  not  my  indigent 
neighbor  a  real  claim  upon  me  ?  Again,  it  has  been 
said  that  the  term  justice  is  applied  to  claims  which 
are  capable  of  being  formulated  in  general  rules  and 
imposed  alike  on  all  men  in  their  dealings  with  one 
another,  while  in  the  case  of  charity  both  the  meas- 
ure and  the  object  of  it  are  to  be  freely  determined  by 
each  one.  We  are  free,  according  to  this  view,  to  de- 
cide whether  a  claim  upon  us  exists  or  not ;  but,  the 
claim  once  having  been  admitted,  it  is  as  binding 
upon  us  as  any  of  the  demands  of  justice.  But, 
while  this  is  true,  I  hold  that  nevertheless  there  ex- 
ists a  clear  distinction  between  the  virtues  of  justice 
and  charity.  We  owe  justice  to  our  equals,  charity 
to  our  inferiors.  The  word  "  inferior  "  is  to  be  un- 
derstood in  a  carefully  limited  sense.  An  employer 
owes  his  workmen,  as  a  matter  of  justice,  the  wages 
he  has  agreed  to  pay.    Though  they  may  be  socially 


228       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

his  inferiors,  in  regard  to  this  transaction  they  are 
his  equals.  They  have  agreed  to  render  him  certain 
services  and  he  has  agreed  to  return  them  an  equiv- 
alent. 

Justice  says  Do  not  hinder  the  development  of 
others ;  Charity  says  Assist  the  development  of  oth- 
ers. The  application  of  the  rule  of  charity  will 
make  its  meaning  clear. 

1.  Justice  says  do  not  destroy  life  ;  Charity  says 
save  life.  Rescue  from  the  flames  the  inmates  of  a 
burning  house  ;  leap  into  the  waves  to  save  a  drown- 
ing fellow-creature.  Such  persons  are  dependent  on 
your  help.  They  are  therefore  with  respect  to  you 
in  an  inferior  position. 

Discuss  with  the  class  the  limitations  of  this 
duty.  I  am  not  hound  to  jump  into  the  water,  for 
instance,  when  I  see  a  person  drowning  unless  I  can 
swim.  In  fact,  it  would  be  culpable  foolhardiness 
in  me  to  do  so.  Discuss  the  following  casuistical 
case :  A  child  is  lying  on  the  railroad  track  and 
a  locomotive  is  rapidly  approaching.  Am  I  bound 
to  make  the  attempt  to  draw  it  away  from  the  track  ? 
Does  it  make  any  difference  whether  I  am  single  or 
the  father  of  a  family  and  have  others  dependent  on 
me  ?  In  general,  the  attempt  to  save  should  not  be 
made  unless  there  is  a  distinct  chance  of  succeeding 
without  the  sacrifice  of  one's  own  life ;  but  we  are 
justified  in  taking  great  risks,  and  courage  and  self- 
reliance  are  evinced  in  the  degree  of  risk  we  are 
willing  to  take.  There  are  cases,  however,  in  which 
the  deliberate  sacrifice  of  one  life  for  another  is  in 


DUTIES  TOWARD  ALL   MEN.  229 

the  highest  degree  praiseworthy  when,  namely,  the 
life  to  be  saved  is  regarded  as  far  more  precious 
than  our  own.  Instance  the  soldier  who  intercepts 
the  thrust  which  is  aimed  at  the  life  of  his  general. 
Instance  the  parent  who  in  the  Johnstown  flood  was 
seen  to  push  his  child  to  a  place  of  safety  and  was 
then  swept  away  by  the  current. 

2.  Assist  the  needy.  This  may  be  done  by  giv- 
ing bread  to  the  hungry,  clothing  to  the  naked, 
shelter  to  the  homeless,  by  caring  for  the  sick,  ad- 
vancing loans  to  those  who  are  struggling  toward  self- 
support,  etc.  The  rule  of  charity  is  based  on  respect 
for  the  personality  of  others.  We  are  required  to 
assist  those  who  are  too  weak  to  hold  their  own,  with 
a  view  of  putting  them  on  their  feet  again.  The  aim 
of  all  charity  should  be  to  make  those  who  are  de- 
pendent on  it  independent  of  it.  From  this  point  of 
view  all  mere  almsgiving,  all  that  so-called  charity 
which  only  serves  to  make  the  dependent  classes  more 
dependent,  stands  condemned.  But  the  true  test  of 
charity,  upon  which  the  greatest  stress  should  be  laid, 
is  to  be  found  in  the  way  it  reacts  upon  the  charitable 
themselves.  Eight  relations,  whatever  their  nature, 
are  always  mutually  beneficial.  Does  the  deed  of 
charity  react  beneficially  on  the  doer?  is  the  test 
question  to  be  asked  in  every  instance.  Take  the 
case  of  a  person  who  gives  large  sums  to  the  poor 
in  the  hope  of  seeing  his  name  favorably  mentioned 
in  the  newspapers.  The  motive  in  this  case  is  van- 
ity, and  the  efl:ect  of  this  spurious  sort  of  charity  is 
to  increase  the  vanity  of  the  donor.     The  reaction 


230       MORAL  INSTKUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

upon  him,  therefore,  is  morally  harmful.  Again, 
take  the  case  of  a  person  who  gives  capriciously,  at 
the  bidding  of  impulse,  without  considering  whether 
his  gifts  are  likely  to  be  of  lasting  benefit  to  the  re- 
cipients. He  is  confirmed  in  his  habit  of  yielding 
to  impulse,  and  the  reaction  is  likewise  morally  in- 
jurious. On  the  other  hand,  the  retroactive  effects 
of  true  charity  are  most  beneficial.  In  the  first  place, 
a  reaction  will  take  place  in  the  direction  of  greater 
simplicity  in  our  own  lives.  A  person  can  not  be 
seriously  and  deeply  interested  in  the  condition  of 
the  poor,  can  not  truly  realize  the  hardships  which 
they  suffer,  without  being  moved  to  cut  off  superflu- 
ous expenditure.  Secondly,  true  charity  will  teach 
us  to  enter  into  the  problems  of  others,  often  so  un- 
like our  own ;  to  put  ourselves  in  their  places ;  to 
consider  how  we  should  act  in  their  circumstances ; 
to  fight  their  battles  for  them ;  and  by  this  means 
our  moral  experience  will  be  enlarged,  and  from 
being  one,  we  become,  as  it  were,  many  men.  True 
charity  will  also  draw  closer  the  bond  of  fellowship 
between  the  poor  and  us,  for  we  shall  often  discover 
virtues  in  them  which  we  do  not  possess  ourselves ; 
and  sometimes,  at  least,  we  shall  have  occasion  to 
look  up  with  a  kind  of  awe  to  those  whom  we  are 
aiding.  In  connection  with  the  discussion  of  char- 
ity, let  the  teacher  relate  the  biographies  of  John 
Howard,  Sister  Dora,  Florence  Nightingale,  Eliza- 
beth Fry,  and  others,  w^ho  have  been  distinguished 
for  their  devotion  to  the  suffering. 

3.   Clieer  up  the  sad.    Explain  that  a  bright  smile 


DUTIES  TOWARD  ALL  MEN.  231 

may  often  have  the  value  of  an  act  of  charity.  In 
general,  emphasize  the  duty  of  suppressing  irritabil- 
ity, ill  humor,  and  moodiness,  and  of  contributing 
to  the  sunshine  of  our  households.* 

4.  Console  the  hereaved.  The  afflicted  are  for 
the  moment  weak  and  dependent ;  it  is  the  office  of 
loving  charity  to  make  them  independent.  Here 
the  same  train  of  reasoning  is  applicable  as  above  in 
the  case  of  the  poor.  It  serves  no  useful  purpose 
merely  to  sit  down  by  the  side  of  the  sorrowful  and 
to  weep  with  them.  They  do  need  sympathy,  but 
they  also  need,  at  least  after  the  first  paroxysms  of 
grief  have  subsided,  to  be  roused. 

The  true  cure  for  suffering  is  action.  Those  who 
suffer  need  to  be  nerved  to  action ;  they  need  to  be 
shown,  above  all,  the  new  duties  which  their  situa- 
tion entails.  He  who  can  point  out  to  them  the  way 
of  duty,  and  can  give  them  of  his  own  strength  to 
walk  in  that  way,  is  their  best  friend — he  is  the  true 
consoler. 

5.  I  have  yet  to  speak  of  mental  charity  and  of 
moral  charity.  Mental  charity  is  practiced  by  the 
wise  teacher,  who  puts  his  pupils  on  the  road  to 
knowledge,  who  helps  them  to  discover  their  true 
vocation,  and  w^ho,  when  they  are  involved  in  doubt 
and  difficulty,  succeeds  in  giving  them  the  clew  by 

*  For  the  teacher  I  add  point  4.  The  duties  mentioned  under 
5  and  6  may  be  practiced  in  a  simple  way  by  the  young  in  the 
form  of  aiding  their  backward  schoolmates,  and  observing  the 
right  attitude  toward  those  of  their  companions  who  are  in 
disgrace. 


232       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

which  they  can  find  an  exit  into  mental  clearness 
and  light. 

6.  Moral  charity  is  practiced  by  those  who  bend 
down  to  the  sinful  and  the  fallen,  and  awaken  in 
them  a  new  hope  and  trust  in  the  good  and  in  them- 
selves. The  charity  which  effects  moral  regenera- 
tion is  perhaps  the  highest  type  of  all,  and  of  this 
I  know  no  more  fitting  nor  more  sublime  example 
than  the  dealing  of  Jesus  with  the  outcasts  of  society. 

Note. — Without  attempting  to  forestall  further  philosophi- 
cal analysis,  we  may  perhaps  assume,  as  a  working  hypothesis, 
as  a  provisional  principle  of  deduction  in  ethics,  the  principle 
of  organization.  The  individual  is  an  organ  of  humanity.  It  is 
his  duty  to  discharge,  as  perfectly  as  possible,  his  special  func- 
tions ;  hence  the  need  of  insisting  on  respect  for  individuality 
throughout.  Even  the  self-regarding  duties  would  have  no  mean- 
ing were  not  the  complex  whole  in  view,  in  the  economy  of  which 
each  member  is  required  to  perform  his  part.  As  in  every  organ- 
ism, so  in  this,  each  separate  organ  serves,  and  is  served  in  turn 
by  all  the  others,  and  can  attain  its  highest  development  only 
through  this  constant  interaction.  To  complete  the  thought,  it 
would  be  necessary  to  add  that  certain  organs  are  more  closely 
connected  than  others,  and  form  lesser  organisms  within  and 
subservient  to  the  whole.  This,  however,  is  merely  thrown  out 
as  a  suggestion  addressed  to  the  student  of  ethics. 

The  Duty  of  Gratitude. — Upon  this  subject 
much  might  be  said,  did  not  the  fact  that  the  time 
at  our  command  is  nearly  exhausted  warn  us  to  use 
even  greater  brevity  than  heretofore  in  dealing 
with  the  topics  that  remain.  To  bring  out  the 
right  relations  between  benefactor  and  beneficiary, 
let  the  teacher  put  the  question.  Why  is  it  wrong 
to  cast  up  the  benefits  we  have  conferred   to   the 


DUTIES  TOWARD  ALL  MEN.  233 

one  who  has  received  them?  And  why,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  it  so  base  in  the  latter  to  show  him- 
self ungrateful.  The  reason  is  to  be  found  in  the 
respect  due  to  the  personality  of  others,  to  which 
we  have  so  often  alluded.  Kant  says  that  every 
human  being  is  to  be  treated  as  an  end  in  himself, 
and  not  merely  as  a  means  or  a  tool.  In  effect,  the 
person  who  ignores  benefits  says  to  his  benefactor  : 
You  are  my  tool.  It  is  unnecessary  for  me  to  recog- 
nize your  services,  because  you  are  not  an  independ- 
ent person  to  be  respected,  but  a  creature  to  be  made 
use  of  at  pleasure.  Ingratitude  is  a  slur  on  the 
moral  personality  of  others.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
who  casts  up  benefits  practically  says  you  have  for- 
feited your  independence  through  the  favors  you 
have  accepted.  I  have  made  your  personality  tribu- 
tary to  mine. 

An  excellent  rule  is  that  of  Seneca.  The  bene- 
factor should  immediately  forget  what  he  has  given ; 
the  beneficiary  should  always  remember  what  he  has 
received.  True  gratitude  is  based  on  the  sense  of 
our  moral  fellowship  with  others.  The  gifts  re- 
ceived and  returned  are  mere  tokens  of  this  noble 
relationship  (as  all  gifts  should  be).  You  have  just 
given  to  me.  I  will  presently  give  to  you  twice  as 
much  again,  or  half  as  much,  it  matters  not  which, 
when  occasion  arises.  We  will  further  each  other's 
aims  as  best  we  can,  for  the  ends  of  each  are  sacred 
to  the  other. 

Duties  to  Servants. — Having  spoken  of  the 
duties  which  we  owe  to  all  men,  I  may  here  refer  to 


234       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

certain  special  duties,  sucli  as  the  duties  toward 
servants.  These  may  also  be  introduced  in  connec- 
tion with  the  duties  of  the  family,  after  the  filial 
and  fraternal  duties  have  been  considered.  I  liave 
space  only  to  mention  the  following  points : 

1.  Servants  are  laborers.  The  same  respect  is 
due  to  them  as  to  all  other  laborers. 

2.  They  are  not  only  laborers,  but  in  a  special 
sense  helpers.  They  are  members  of  the  household 
in  a  subordinate  capacity,  and  in  many  cases  iden- 
tify tliemselves  closely  with  the  interests  of  the 
family.  They  are,  as  it  were,  lay  brothers  and  lay 
sisters  of  the  family.  From  these  considerations 
may  be  deduced  the  duties  w^hich  we  ow^e  toward 
servants. 

Duties  with  regard  to  Animals. — I  can  not 
admit  that  we  have  duties  tow^ard  animals.  We  can 
not  very  well  speak  of  duties  tow^ard  creatures  on 
which  we  in  part  subsist ;  but  there  are  duties  with 
respect  to  animals.  Man  is  a  rational  being,  and  as 
such  takes  a  natural  delight  in  that  orderly  arrange- 
ment and  interdependence  of  parts  which  are  the 
visible  counterpart  of  the  rational  principle  in  his 
own  nature.  "We  ought  not  to  step  on  or  heedlessly 
crush  under  our  feet  even  a  single  flower.  Much 
less  should  we  ruthlessly  destroy  the  more  perfect 
organism  which  we  see  in  animals.  Add  to  this 
that  animals  are  sentient  creatures,  and  that  the 
useless  infliction  of  pain  tends  to  develop  cruelty 
in  us.  As  a  practical  means  of  fostering  kind- 
ness toward  animals,  I  suggest  the  following :  Get 


DUTIES  TOWARD  ALL   MEN.  235 

your  pupils  interested  in  the  habits  of  animals. 
Familiarity  in  this  case  will  breed  sympathy.  Speak 
of  the  building  instincts  of  bees  ;  of  the  curious 
structures  raised  by  those  wonderful  engineers,  the 
beavers.  Give  prominence  to  the  love  for  their 
young  by  which  the  brute  creation  is  brought  into 
closer  connection  with  the  human  family.  Mention 
especially  the  fidelity  which  some  animals  show 
toward  man  (the  saving  of  human  lives  by  St.  Ber- 
nard dogs,  etc.),  and  the  uses  which  we  derive  from 
the  various  members  of  the  animal  creation.  As  to 
the  fact  that  we  use  animals  for  our  sustenance,  the 
highest  point  of  view  to  take,  I  think,  is  this,  that 
man  is,  so  to  speak,  the  crucible  in  which  all  the 
utilities  of  nature  are  refined  to  higher  spiritual 
uses.  Man  puts  the  whole  of  nature  under  contribu- 
tion to  serve  his  purposes.  He  takes  trees  from 
the  forest  in  order  to  build  his  house,  and  to  fashion 
the  table  at  which  he  takes  his  meals  ;  he  brings 
up  metal  from  the  depths  of  the  earth  and  con- 
verts it  into  tools ;  he  takes  clay  and  forms  it 
into  vessels.  He  also  is  permitted  to  j)luck  flowers 
wherewith  to  garnish  his  feasts,  and  to  make  them 
the  tokens  of  his  love ;  and  in  the  same  manner 
he  may  actually  absorb  the  life  of  the  lower  ani- 
mals, in  order  to  transform  and  transfigure  it,  as  it 
were,  into  that  higher  life  which  is  possible  only  in 
human  society.  But  it  follows  that  he  is  a  mere 
parasite  and  an  interloper  in  nature,  unless  he  actu- 
ally leads  the  truly  human  life. 


XV. 
THE  ELEMENTS   OF   CIVIC  DUTY. 

It  should  be  the  aim  of  the  school  not  only  to 
connect  the  system  of  school  duties  with  the  duties 
of  the  previous  period,  but  also  to  prepare  the  pu- 
pils morally  for  the  period  which  follows.  The 
school  is  the  intermediate  link  between  life  in  the 
family  and  life  in  society  and  the  state.  The  course 
of  moral  instruction,  therefore,  culminates  for  the 
present  in  the  chapter  on  civic  duties.  Needless  to 
say  that  at  this  stage  the  subject  can  be  considered 
in  its  elements  only. 

The  claims  of  the  state  upon  the  moral  attach- 
ment of  the  citizen  can  hardly  be  presented  too 
warmly.  Life  in  the  state  as  well  as  in  the  family 
is  indispensable  to  the  full  development  of  character. 
Man,  in  his  progress  from  childhood  to  old  age, 
passes  successively  through  ever-widening  circles  of 
duty,  and  new  moral  horizons  open  upon  him  as  he 
grows  out  of  one  into  the  other.  One  of  the  largest 
of  these  circles,  and,  in  respect  to  moral  opportuni- 
ties, one  of  the  richest  and  most  glorious,  is  the 
state.  It  may  be  said  that  the  whole  state  exists 
ideally  in  every  true  citizen,  or,  what  amounts 
to  the  same,  that  the  true  citizen  embraces  the  in- 
terests of  the  state,  as  if  they  were  his  own,  and 


THE  ELEMENTS  OP  CIVIC  DUTY.  237 

acts  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  total  body  politic. 
Increased  breadth  of  view  and  elevation  of  purpose 
are  the  moral  benefits  which  accrue  to  every  one 
who  even  honestly  attempts  to  be  a  citizen  in  this 
sense. 

Much  attention  is  paid  in  some  schools  to  the 
machinery  of  our  government.  The  pupils  are  ex- 
pected to  learn  the  exact  functions  of  mayors,  city 
councils,  and  legislative  bodies,  the  provisions  rela- 
tive to  the  election  of  the  President,  etc.  But 
while  these  things  ought  to  be  known,  they  relate, 
after  all,  only  to  the  externals  of  government ;  and 
it  is  far  more  important  to  familiarize  the  pupils 
with  the  animating  spirit  of  political  institutions, 
with  the  great  ideas  which  underlie  the  state.  There 
are  especially  three  political  ideas  to  w^liich  I  should 
give  prominence ;  these  are,  the  idea  of  the  suprem- 
acy of  the  law ;  the  true  idea  of  punishment ;  and 
the  idea  of  nationality.  After  we  have  instilled 
these  ideas,  it  will  be  time  enough  to  dwell  with 
greater  particularity  on  the  machinery  by  which  it 
is  sought  to  carry  them  into  effect. 

What  method  shall  we  use  for  instilling  these 
ideas  ?  The  same  which  modern  pedagogy  applies 
in  every  branch  of  instruction.  The  rule  is,  Pro- 
ceed from  the  known  to  the  unknown  ;  in  intro- 
ducing a  new  notion,  connect  it  with  some  analogous 
notion  already  in  the  pupil's  possession.  The 
school  offers  excellent  opportunities  for  developing 
the  two  ideas  of  law  and  punishment.  In  every 
school  there  exists  a  body  of  rules  and  regulations,  or 


238       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

school  laws.  It  should  be  made  plain  to  the  scholars 
that  these  laws  are  enacted  for  their  own  good. 
The  government  of  the  school  should  be  made  to 
rest  as  far  as  possible  on  the  consent  and  co-opera- 
tion of  the  governed.  That  school  which  does  not 
secure  on  the  part  of  the  scholars  a  willing  accept- 
ance of  the  system  of  restraints  which  is  necessary 
for  the  good  of  the  whole,  is  a  failure.  In  such  an 
institution  the  law-abiding  spirit  can  never  be  fos- 
tered. 

The  play-ground,  too,  affords  a  preliminary  train- 
ing for  future  citizenship.  On  the  play-ground  the 
scholars  learn  to  select  and  to  obey  their  own  lead- 
ers, to  maintain  the  rules  of  the  game,  and  to  put 
down  any  infraction  of  them,  whether  in  the  shape 
of  violence  or  fraud.  They  also  learn  to  defer  to 
the  will  of  the  majority — a  most  important  lesson, 
especially  in  democratic  communities — and  to  bear 
defeat  good-humoredly.^ 

The  true  idea  of  punishment  should  be  brought 
home  to  the  scholars  through  the  discipline  of  the 
school.  The  ends  of  punishment  are  the  protection 
of  the  community  and  the  reformation  of  the  of- 
fender, lifo where  better  than  in  the  little  common- 
wealth of  the  school  can  these  moral  aspects  of  pun- 
ishment be  impressed  ;  nowhere  better  can  the  foun- 
dation be  laid  for  the  changes  which  are  so  urgently 
needed  in  the  dealings  of  the  state  with  the  criminal 
class.      Everything,  of   course,  depends   upon   the 

*  Vide  Dole,  "  The  American  Citizen." 


TFIE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVIC  DUTY.  239 

character  of  the  teacher.  His  reputation  for 
strict  justice,  the  moral  earnestness  he  displays  in 
dealing  with  offenses,  his  readiness  to  forbear  and 
forgive  upon  the  least  sign  of  genuine  repentance — 
these  are  the  means  by  which  he  (ian  instill  right 
notions  as  to  what  discipline  should  be.  It  has 
been  suggested  that,  w^lien  a  particularly  serious 
case  of  transgression  occurs,  the  teacher  can  some- 
times produce  a  profound  moral  effect  on  the  class 
by  submitting  the  case  to  them  as  a  jury  and  asking 
for  their  verdict. 

The  idea  of  nationality  I  regard  as  fundamental 
in  political  ethics.  There  is  such  a  thing  as  national 
character,  national  genius,  or  national  individuality. 
When  w^e  think  of  the  Greeks,  we  think  of  them  as 
pre-eminent  for  their  achievements  in  art  and  phi- 
losophy ;  of  the  Hebrews,  as  the  people  of  the  Bible ; 
of  the  Eomans,  as  the  founders  of  jurisprudence, 
etc.  And  on  turning  to  the  modern  nations  we  find 
that  the  talents  of  the  English,  the  Germans,  the 
French,  the  Italians,  etc.,  are  no  less  diversified. 
Morally  speaking,  it  is  the  mission  of  each  nation  in 
correlation  with  others  to  contribute  to  the  uni- 
versal work  of  civilization  its  own  peculiar  gifts. 
The  state  may  be  regarded  as  that  organization  of 
the  public  life  which  is  designed  to  develop  the  na- 
tional individuality  ;  to  foster  the  national  genius 
in  whatever  direction  it  may  seek  to  express  itself, 
whether  in  industry,  art,  literature,  or  science ;  to 
clarify  its  aims,  and  to  raise  it  to  the  highest  pitch 
of  beneficent  power. 


240       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

Doubtless  this  idea,  as  stated,  is  too  abstract 
to  be  grasped  by  the  young ;  but  it  can  be  brought 
down  to  their  level  in  a  tangible  way.  For  the 
national  genius  expresses  itself  in  the  national 
history,  and  more  especially  is  it  incorporated  in 
those  great  leaders,  who  arise  at  critical  periods  to 
guide  the  national  development  into  new  channels. 
It  is  at  this  point  that  we  realize  anew  the  impor- 
tant support  which  the  teaching  of  history  may  give 
to  the  moral  teaching."^  Thus  the  political  history 
of  the  United  States,  if  I  may  be  permitted  to  use  that 
as  an  illustration  of  my  thought,  may  be  divided  into 
three  great  periods.  The  struggle  with  nature  oc- 
cupied the  earliest  period — that  of  colonization  ;  in 
this  period  we  see  the  American  man  engaged  in  sub- 
duing a  continent.  The  struggle  for  political  free- 
dom fills  the  period  of  the  Revolution.  The  struggle 
for  a  universal  moral  idea  lends  grandeur  to  our 
civil  war.  The  story  of  these  three  great  struggles 
should  be  related  with  such  clearness  that  the  idea 
which  dominated  each  may  stand  out  in  relief,  and 
with  such  fervor  that  the  pupils  may  conceive  a 
more  ardent  love  for  their  country  which,  at  the  same 
time  that  it  holds  out  immeasurable  prospects  for  the 
future,  already  possesses  such  glorious  traditions. 
There  is,  however,  always  a  great  danger  that  pa- 
triotism may  degenerate  into  Chauvinism.  Against 
this,  universal  history,  when  taught  in  the  right  spirit, 
is  the  best  antidote.     A  knowledge  of  universal  his- 

*  See  remarks  on  this  subject  in  the  third  lecture. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVIC   DUTY.  241 

tory  is  an  admirable  check  on  spurious  patriotism. 
In  teaching  it,  it  is  especially  desirable  that  the  con- 
tribution which  each  nation  has  made  to  the  progress 
of  the  world  be  noted  and  emphasized.  Let  the 
teacher  speak  of  the  early  development  of  the  litera- 
ture and  of  the  inventive  spirit  of  the  despised  Chi- 
nese ;  of  the  high  civilization  which  once  flourished 
on  the  banks  of  the  Nile ;  of  the  immortal  debt  we 
owe  to  Greece  and  Rome  and  Judea.  Let  the  young 
be  made  acquainted  with  the  important  services 
which  Ireland  rendered  to  European  culture  in  the 
early  part  of  the  middle  ages.  Let  them  learn,  how- 
ever briefly,  of  the  part  which  France  played  in  the 
overthrow  of  feudalism,  of  the  wealth  of  German 
science  and  literature  and  philosophy ;  let  them  know 
how  much  mankind  owes  to  the  Parliaments  of  Eng- 
land, and  to  the  stout  heart  and  strong  sense  which 
made  parliaments  possible.  It  is  not  by  underrating 
others,  but  by  duly  estimating  and  appreciating  their 
achievements,  that  we  shall  flnd  ourselves  challenged 
to  bring  forth  what  is  best  in  ourselves. 

There  is  still  another  reason  why,  especially  in 
American  schools,  the  teaching  of  universal  his- 
tory should  receive  far  greater  attention  than  hith- 
erto has  been  accorded  to  it.  The  American  people 
are  imbued  with  the  belief  that  they  have  a  problem 
to  solve  for  all  mankind.  They  have  set  out  to 
demonstrate  in  the  face  of  doubt  and  adverse  criti- 
cism the  possibility  of  popular  self-government. 
They  have  thus  consecrated  their  national  life  to  a 

sublime  humanitarian  idea.     And  the  sense  of  this 
16 


242       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

consecration,  echoing  in  the  utterances  of  many  of 
their  leading  statesmen,  has  more  or  less  permeated 
the  whole  people.  But  the  mission  thus  assumed, 
like  the  burden  on  the  shoulders  of  Christophorus, 
is  becoming  heavier  at  every  step.  The  best  citizens 
recognize  that  the  problem  of  popular  self-govern- 
ment, so  far  from  being  solved,  is  but  beginning  to 
disclose  itself  in  all  its  vast  complexity,  and  they 
realize  more  than  ever  how  necessary  it  is  to  get 
every  possible  help  from  the  example  and  experi- 
ence of  older  nations.  The  political  lessons  of  the 
past  can  not  indeed  be  mastered  in  the  public  schools. 
But  a  preliminary  interest  in  European  history  may 
be  created,  which  will  pave  the  way  for  profitable 
study  later  on. 

Furthermore,  the  American  people  have  ex- 
tended a  most  liberal  invitation  to  members  of  other 
nationalities  (with  few  restrictions,  and  these  of  re- 
cent origin)  to  come  and  join  in  working  out  the 
destinies  of  the  new  continent.  Not  only  is  an  asy- 
lum granted  to  the  oppressed — this  were  the  lesser 
boon — but  the  gates  of  citizenship  have  been  opened 
wide  to  the  new-comers.  What  does  this  mean,  if 
not  that  the  foreigners  who  come,  unless  indeed 
they  belong  to  the  weak  and  dependent  classes,  are 
wanted  ;  and  wanted  not  only  in  their  capacity  as 
workers  to  aid  in  developing  the  material  resources 
of  the  country,  but  as  citizens,  to  help  in  perfecting 
what  is  still  imperfect,  to  assist  in  building  up  in 
time,  on  American  soil,  the  true  republic. 

In  return  for  this  privilege  the  citizens  of  for- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  CIVIC  DUTY.  243 

eign  birth  owe  it  to  their  adopted  country  to  place 
the  best  of  their  racial  gifts  at  its  service.  Much 
that  the  citizens  of  foreign  birth  bring  with  them, 
indeed,  will  have  to  be  eliminated,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  many  of  their  traits  will  probably  enter  as  con- 
stituent elements  into  the  national  character.  The 
Anglo-Saxon  race  has  now  the  lead,  and  wall  doubt- 
less keep  it.  But  in  the  melting-pot  of  the  American 
commonwealths  the  elements  of  many  diverse  na- 
tionalities are  being  mixed  anew,  and  a  new  nation- 
ality distinctively  American  is  likely  to  be  the  final 
outcome  of  the  process.  Thus  both  the  humanitarian 
ideal  and  the  actual  make-up  of  the  people  betray  a 
cosmopolitan  tendency,  and  it  is  this  tendency  which, 
more  perhaps  than  anything  else,  gives  to  American 
political  life  its  characteristic  physiognomy.  If  this 
be  so,  if  the  foreign  elements  are  so  numerous  and 
likely  to  be  so  influential,  it  is  surely  important  that 
the  foreign  races,  their  character  and  their  history, 
be  studied  and  understood. 

Besides  explaining  the  political  ideas,  I  should 
briefly  describe  the  actual  functions  of  government. 
Government  protects  the  life  and  property  of  its 
citizens  against  foreign  aggression  and  violence  at 
home.  Government  maintains  the  binding  force  of 
contracts.  Government  reserves  to  itself  the  coin- 
age of  money,  carries  the  mails,  supports  public  edu- 
cation, etc.  In  a  word,  government  assumes  those 
functions  which  can  be  discharged  more  satisfactorily 
or  more  economically  by  the  joint  action  of  the  com- 
munity than  if  left  to  private  individuals  or  corpora- 


244        MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

tioris.  But  government  also  undertakes  the  duty  of 
protecting  the  weaker  classes  against  oppression  by 
the  stronger,  as  is  shown  by  factory  legislation  in 
the  interest  of  women  and  minors.  How  far  this 
function  may  profitably  be  extended  is  open  to  dis- 
cussion ;  but  that  it  has  been  assumed  in  all  civilized 
countries  is  a  fact  which  should  be  noted. 


♦  XVI. 

THE    USE   OF  PROVEEBS  AISTD    SPEECHES. 

For  the  use  of  my  classes  1  have  made  a  collec- 
tion of  proverbs  from  the  Bible,  from  Buddha's 
Dhammapada,  from  the  Encheiridion  of  Epictetus, 
the  Imitation  of  Christ,  and  other  ancient  and  mod- 
ern sources.  Some  of  these  belong  to  the  advanced 
course,  others  can  be  used  in  the  grammar  course. 
I  have  time  to  mention  only  a  few,  in  order  to  illus- 
trate the  method  of  using  them. 

The  habit  of  committing  proverbs  or  golden 
sayings  to  memory  without  a  previous  analysis  of 
their  meaning  serves  no  good  purpose  whatever. 
Proverbs  are  the  condensed  expression  of  the  moral 
experience  of  generations.  The  teacher  should 
search  out  the  experiences  to  which  the  proverbs 
refer.  Proverbs  may  be  compared  to  those  delicate 
Eastern  fabrics  which  can  be  folded  up  into  the 
smallest  compass,  but  which,  when  unfolded,  are 
seen  to  cover  a  large  space.  The  teacher  should  ex- 
plore the  territory  covered  by  the  proverb.  Take, 
for  example,  such  a  saying  as  this,  "  Blessed  be  he 
who  has  the  good  eye."  What  is  the  good  eye? 
The  eye  that  sees  the  good  in  others.  Is  it  easy  to 
see  the  good  in  others?  Yes,  if  we  are  fond  of 
them ;  but  if  we  are  not,  we  are  likely  to  see  only 

(245) 


24:6       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

the  evil.  But  suppose  there  is  no  good  to  be  seen, 
at  least  not  on  the  surface ;  why,  then  the  good  eye 
is  that  which  sees  the  good  beneath  the  surface, 
which,  like  the  divining-rod,  shows  where  in  human 
character  gold  lies  buried,  and  helps  us  to  penetrate 
to  it.  But  even  this  does  not  exhaust  the  meaning 
of  the  proverb.  The  good  eye  is  that  which,  as  it 
were,  sees  the  good  into  others,  sends  its  good  influ- 
ence into  them,  makes  them  good  by  believing  them 
to  be  so.  The  good  eye  is  a  creative  eye.  Or  take 
the  proverb,  "A  falsehood  is  like  pebbles  in  the 
mouth."  "Why  not  say  a  falsehood  is  like  a  pebble  ? 
No,  one  falsehood  is  like  many  pebbles.  For  every 
falsehood  tends  to  multiply  itself,  and  each  sepa- 
rate falsehood  is  like  a  pebble  —  not  like  bread, 
which  we  can  assimilate,  but  like  a  stone,  a  for- 
eign body,  alien  to  our  nature.  Moreover,  the 
proverb  says,  A  falsehood  is  like  pebbles  in  the 
mouth ;  which  means  that  these  stony  falsehoods 
will  choke  us,  choke  the  better  life  in  us,  unless 
we  cast  them  out.  Again,  take  such  sayings  as 
these  from  the  Dhammapada :  "As  rain  breaks 
through  an  ill-thatched  house,  passion  will  break 
through  an  unreflecting  mind."  Explain  what  kind 
of  reflection  is  needed  to  keep  oil  passion.  "  He 
who  is  well  subdued  may  subdue  others."  Show 
what  kind  of  self-control  is  meant,  and  in  what  sense 
others  are  to  be  subdued.  "  He  who  holds  back  anger 
like  a  rolling  chariot,  him  I  call  a  real  driver ;  other 
people  are  but  holding  the  reins."  "  Let  a  man  over- 
come anger  by  love ;  let  him  overcome  evil  by  good ; 


THE  USE  OP  PROVERBS  AND  SPEECHES.  247 

let  him  overcome  the  greedy  by  liberality,  the  liar 
by  truth."  Describe  the  sort  of  brake  by  means  of 
which  the  rolHng  chariot  of  anger  may  be  checked 
in  mid-course,  and  the  efficacy  of  goodness  in  over- 
coming evil.  From  the  Encheiridion  it  occurs  to 
me  to  mention  the  saying,  ''Everything  has  two 
handles :  the  one  by  which  it  can  be  borne,  the  other 
by  which  it  can  not  be  borne."  Epictetus  himself 
gives  an  illustration :  "  If  your  brother  acts  unjustly 
toward  you,  do  not  lay  hold  of  the  act  by  that  handle 
wherein  he  acts  unjustly,  for  that  is  the  handle  by 
which  it  can  not  be  borne ;  but  lay  hold  of  the 
other,  that  he  is  your  brother,  and  you  will  lay  hold 
of  the  thing  by  that  handle  by  which  it  can  be 
borne."  There  are  also  many  other  illustrations  of 
this  noble  maxim.  Disappointment  has  two  handles, 
the  one  by  which  it  can  be  borne,  the  other  by  which 
it  can  not.  Affliction  has  two  handles.  Illustrate 
profusely  ;  search  out  the  meaning  in  detail. 

There  is  a  mine  of  practical  wisdom  in  these 
sayings.  There  exist  proverbs  relating  to  all  the 
various  duties  which  have  been  discussed  in  our 
course ;  proverbs  relating  to  the  pursuit  of  knowl- 
edge ;  many  and  beautiful  proverbs  on  the  filial  and 
fraternal  duties,  on  courage,  on  humility,  on  the  im- 
portance of  keeping  promises,  on  kindness  to  ani- 
mals, on  the  moral  end  of  civil  society.  Proverbs 
should  be  classified  under  their  proper  heads  and 
used  as  occasion  offers.  Permit  me,  however,  to 
add  one  word  of  caution.  It  is  a  mistake  to  teach 
too  many  proverbs  at  a  time,  to  overload  the  pupil's 


248       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

mind  with  them.  The  proverbs  selected  should  be 
brief,  pithy,  and  profoundly  significant.  But  there 
should  not  be  too  many  at  a  time.  It  is  better  to 
return  to  the  same  proverb  often,  and  to  penetrate 
deeper  into  its  meaning  every  time.  The  value  of 
the  proverbs  is  that  they  serve  as  pegs  in  the  mem- 
ory, to  which  long  chains  of  moral  reflection  can  be 
attached.  They  are  guide-posts  pointing  with  their 
short  arms  to  the  road  of  duty ;  they  are  voices  of 
mankind  uttering  impressive  warnings,  and  giving 
clear  direction  in  moments  when  the  promptings  of 
self-interest  or  the  mists  of  passion  w^ould  be  likely 
to  lead  us  astray. 

It  may  also  be  well  to  select  a  number  of  speeches 
which  embody  high  moral  sentiments,  like  some  of 
the  speeches  of  Isaiah,  the  speech  of  Socrates  before 
his  judges,  and  others,  and,  after  having  explained 
their  meaning,  to  cause  them  to  be  recited  by  the 
pupils.  Just  as  the  delivery  of  patriotic  speeches  is 
found  useful  for  inculcating  patriotic  sentiments,  so 
such  speeches  as  these  will  tend  to  quicken  the  moral 
sentiments.  He  who  repeats  the  speech  of  another 
for  the  time  being  puts  on  the  character  of  the  other. 
The  sentiments  which  are  uttered  by  the  lips  live  for 
the  moment  in  the  heart,  and  leave  their  mark  there. 


XVII. 

THE    INDIVIDUALIZATION    OF    MORAL 
TEACHING. 

This  subject  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  It 
really  requires  extended  and  careful  treatment,  but  a 
few  hints  must  suffice.  The  teacher  should  remem- 
ber that  he  is  educating  not  boys  and  girls  in  gen- 
eral, but  particular  boys  and  girls,  each  of  whom 
has  particular  faults  needing  to  be  corrected  and 
actual  or  potential  virtues  to  be  developed  and  en- 
couraged. Therefore  a  conscientious  study  of  the 
character  of  the  pupils  is  necessary.  This  consti- 
tutes an  additional  reason  why  moral  instruction 
should  be. given  in  a  daily  school  rather  than  in  a 
Sunday  school,  the  opportunities  for  the  study  of 
character  being  vastly  better  in  the  former  than 
they  can  possibly  be  in  the  latter.  The  teacher  who 
gives  the  moral  lessons,  in  undertaking  this  study, 
should  solicit  the  co-operation  of  all  the  other  teach- 
ers of  the  school.  He  should  request  from  time  to 
time  from  each  of  his  fellow-teachers  reports  stat- 
ing the  good  and  bad  traits  observed  in  each  pupil, 
or  rather  the  facts  on  which  the  various  teachers 
base  their  estimates  of  the  good  and  bad  qualities 
of  the  scholars ;  for  the  opinions  of  teachers  are 
sometimes  unreliable,  are  sometimes  discolored  by 

(249) 


250       MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

prejudice,  while  facts  tell  their  own  story.  These 
facts  should  be  collated  by  the  moral  teacher,  and, 
with  them  as  a  basis,  he  may  endeavor  to  work  out  a 
kind  of  chart  of  the  character  of  each  of  his  pupils. 
It  goes  without  saying,  that  he  should  also  seek  the 
co-operation  of  the  parents,  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
covering what  cliaracteristic  traits  the  pupil  displays 
at  home ;  and  if  the  reputation  which  a  pupil  bears 
among  his  companions,  can  be  ascertained  with- 
out undue  prying,  this,  too,  will  be  found  of  use  in 
forming  an  estimate  of  his  disposition.  The  teacher 
who  knows  the  special  temptations  of  his  pupils  will 
have  many  opportunities,  in  the  course  of  the  moral 
lessons,  to  give  them  pertinent  warnings  and  advice, 
without  seeming  to  address  them  in  particular  or  ex- 
posing their  faults  to  the  class.  He  will  also  be  able 
to  exercise  a  helpful  surveillance  over  their  conduct 
in  school,  and  to  become  in  private  their  friend  and 
counselor.  Moreover,  the  material  thus  collected 
will  in  time  prove  serviceable  in  helping  us  to  a 
more  exact  knowledge  of  the  different  varieties  of 
human  character — a  knowledge  which  would  give 
to  the  art  of  ethical  training  something  like  a  scien- 
tific basis.^ 


*  See  some  remarks  on  types  of  character  in  my  lecture  on 
the  Punishment  of  Children. 


EECAPITULATION. 

Let  us  now  briefly  review  the  ground  we  have 
gone  over  in  the  present  course.  In  the  five  in- 
troductory lectures  we  discussed  the  problem  of 
unsectarian  moral  teaching,  the  efficient  motives  of 
good  conduct,  the  opportunities  of  moral  influence 
in  schools,  the  classification  of  duties,  and  the  moral 
status  of  the  child  on  entering  school. 

In  mapping  out  the  primary  course  we  assumed 
as  a  starting-point  the  idea  that  the  child  rapidly 
passes  through  the  same  stages  of  evolution  through 
which  the  human  race  has  passed,  and  hence  we 
endeavored  to  select  our  material  for  successive 
epochs  in  the  child's  life  from  the  literature  of  the 
corresponding  epochs  in  the  life  of  the  race. 

In  regard  to  the  method  of  instruction,  we  ob- 
served that  in  the  fairy  tales  the  moral  element 
should  be  touched  on  incidentally ;  that  in  teaching 
the  fables  isolated  moral  qualities  should  be  pre- 
sented in  such  a  way  that  the  pupil  may  always 
thereafter  be  able  to  recognize  them ;  while  the 
stories  display  a  number  of  moral  qualities  in  com- 
bination and  have  the  value  of  moral  pictures. 

In  the  primary  course  the  object  has  been  to 
train  the  moral  perceptions ;  in  the  grammar  course, 
to  work  out  moral  concepts  and  to  formulate  rules 
of  conduct.  The  method  of  getting  at  these  rules 
may  again  be  described  as  follows :  Begin  with  some 

(251) 


252       MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

concrete  case,  suggest  a  rule  which  apparently  fits 
that  case  or  really  fits  it,  adduce  other  cases  which 
the  rule  does  not  fit,  change  the  rule,  modify  it  as 
often  as  necessary,  until  it  has  been  brought  into 
such  shape  that  it  will  fit  every  case  you  can  think  of. 

In  planning  the  lessons  on  duty  which  make  up 
the  subject  matter  of  the  grammar  course,  we  took 
the  ground  that  each  period  of  life  has  its  specific 
duties,  that  in  each  period  there  is  one  paramount 
duty  around  which  the  others  may  be  grouped,  and 
that  each  new  system  of  duties  should  embrace  and 
absorb  the  preceding  one. 

It  remains  for  me  to  add  that  the  illustrations 
which  I  have  used  in  the  grammar  course  are  in- 
tended merely  to  serve  as  specimens,  and  by  no 
means  to  exclude  the  use  of  different  illustrative 
matter  which  the  teacher  may  find  more  suitable. 
Furthermore,  I  desire  to  express  the  hope  that  it 
may  be  possible,  without  too  much  difficulty,  to 
eliminate  whatever  subjective  conceptions  may  be 
found  to  have  crept  into  these  lessons,  and  that,  due 
deduction  having  been  made,  there  may  remain  a 
substratum  of  objective  truth  which  all  can  accept. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  these  lectures  are  not 
intended  to  take  the  place  of  a  text-book,  but  to 
serve  as  a  guide  to  the  teacher  in  preparing  his 
lessons. 

I  hope  hereafter  to  continue  the  work  which  has 
thus  been  begun.  In  the  advanced  course,  which 
is  to  follow  the  present  one,  we  shall  have  to  recon- 
sider from  a  higgler  point  of  view  many  of  the  sub- 


RECAPITULATION.  253 

jects  already  treated,  and  in  addition  to  take  up 
such  topics  as  tlie  ethics  of  the  professions,  the  ethics 
of  friendship,  conjugal  ethics,  etc.,  which  have  here 
been  omitted. 

I  shall  also  attempt  to  indicate  the  lines  for  a 
systematic  study  of  biographies,  and  to  lay  out  a 
course  of  selected  readings  from  the  best  ethical 
literature  of  ancient  and  modern  times. 


APPENDIX. 


(256) 


APPENDIX. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  MANUAL  TRAINING  ON 
CHARACTER.* 

Maii^^ual  training  has  recently  been  suggested 
as  one  of  the  means  of  combating  the  criminal  tend- 
ency in  the  young,  and  this  suggestion  is  being  re- 
ceived with  increasing  favor.  But  until  now  the 
theory  of  manual  training  has  hardly  begun  to  be 
worked  out.  The  confidence  which  is  expressed  in  it 
is  based,  for  the  most  part,  on  unclassified  experience. 
But  experience  without  theory  is  altogether  insuffi- 
cient. Theory,  it  is  true,  without  experience  is  with- 
out feet  to  stand.  But  experience  without  the  guiding 
and  directing  help  of  theory  is  without  eyes  to  see. 
I  shall  now  offer,  in  a  somewhat  tentative  way,  a  few 
remarks  intended  to  be  a  contribution  to  the  philos- 
ophy of  manual  training  as  applied  to  the  reforma- 
tion of  delinquent  children.  I  shall  confine  myself, 
however,  to  one  type  of  criminality  in  children — a  not  \ 
uncommon  type — that  of  moral  deterioration  arising  I 
from  weakness  of  the  will. 

In  the  first  place,  let  us  distinguish  between  feel- 

*An  address  delivered  before  the  National  Conference  of 
Charities  and  Correction,  at  Buffalo,  July,  1888. 

ir  (257) 


258       MORAL   INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

ing,  desiring,  and  willing.  A  person  who  is  without 
food  feels  hunger.  A  person  who,  being  hungry,  calls 
up  in  his  mind  images  of  food,  will  experience  a  desire. 
A  person  who  adopts  means  to  obtain  food  performs 
an  act  of  the  will.  A  Russian  prisoner  in  Siberia  who 
su tiers  from  the  restraints  of  confinement  is  in  a  state 
of  feeling.  The  same  person,  when  he  recalls  images 
of  home  and  friends,  is  in  a  state  of  desire  ;  but  when 
he  sets  about  adopting  the  means  to  effect  his  escape, 
concerts  signals  with  his  fellow-prisoners,  under- 
mines the  walls  of  his  dungeon,  etc.,  he  is  perform- 
ing acts  of  the  will.  Permit  me  to  call  particular 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  will  is  characterized  at 
its  birth  by  the  intellectual  factor  which  enters  into 
it ;  for  the  calculation  of  means  to  ends  is  an  intel- 
lectual process,  and  every  conscious  act  of  volition 
involves  such  a  process.  If  the  will  is  thus  character- 
ized at  its  birth,  we  can  at  once  anticipate  the  con- 
clusion that  any  will  will  be  strong  in  proportion 
as  the  intellectual  factor  in  it  predominates.  It  was 
said  by  one  of  the  speakers  that  "  an  ounce  of  affection 
is  better  than  a  ton  of  intellect."  Give  me  a  proper 
mixture  of  the  two.  Give  me  at  least  an  ounce  of  intel- 
lect together  with  an  ounce  of  affection.  There  is  great 
danger  lest  we  exaggerate  the  importance  of  the  emo- 
tions for  morality.  The  opinion  is  widely  entertained 
that  good  feeling,  kind  feeling,  loving  feeling,  is  the 
whole  of  morality,  or,  at  least,  the  essential  factor  in 
it.  But  this  opinion  is  surely  erroneous.  The  will 
may  be  compared  to  the  power  which  propels  a 
ship  through  the  waves.  Feeling  is  the  rudder.  The 
intellect  is  the  helmsman. 


THE   INFLUENCE  OF  MANUAL  TRAINING.  259 

Let  me  give  illustrations  to  bring  into  view  the 
characteristics  of  a  strong  and  of  a  weak  will.  Great 
inventors,  great  statesmen,  great  reformers,  illustrate 
strength  of  will.  We  note  in  them  especially  tenacity 
of  purpose  and  a  marvelous  faculty  for  adjusting  and 
readjusting  means  to  ends.  Persons  who  are  swayed 
by  the  sensual  appetites  illustrate  weakness  of  will. 
We  note  in  them  vacillation  of  purpose,  and  the 
power  of  adjusting  means  to  ends  only  in  its  rudiment- 
ary form.  The  ideas  of  virtue  are  complex.  No  one 
can  illustrate  virtue  on  a  high  plane  unless  he  is 
capable  of  holding  in  mind  long  trains  and  complex 
groups  of  ideas.  The  lowest  vices,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  distinguished  by  the  circumstance  that 
the  ends  to  which  they  look  are  simple,  and  the 
means  employed  often  of  the  crudest  kind.  Thus, 
suppose  that  a  person  of  weak  will  is  hungry.  He 
knows  that  gold  will  buy  food.  He  adopts  the  readi- 
est way  to  get  gold.  Incapable  of  that  long  and  com- 
plex method  of  attaining  his  end,  which  is  exhibited, 
for  instance,  by  the  farmer  who  breaks  the  soil,  plants 
the  corn,  watches  his  crops,  and  systematizes  his  labors 
from  the  year's  beginning  to  its  end,  he  takes  the 
shortest  road  toward  the  possession  of  gold — he 
stretches  forth  his  hand  and  takes  it  where  he  finds  it. 
The  man  of  weak  will,  who  has  a  grudge  against  his 
rival,  is  not  capable  of  putting  forth  a  sustained 
and  complex  series  of  efforts  toward  obtaining  satis- 
faction, for  instance,  by  laboring  arduously  to  outstrip 
his  rival.  He  is,  furthermore,  incapable  of  those 
larger  considerations,  those  complex  groups  of  ideas 
relating  to  society  and  its  permanent  interests,  which 


260       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

check  the  angry  passions  in  the  educated.  He  gives 
free  and  immediate  rein  to  the  passion  as  it  rises.  He 
takes  the  readiest  means  of  getting  satisfaction :  he 
draws  the  knife  and  kills.  The  man  of  weak  will, 
who  burns  with  sensual  desire,  assaults  the  object  of 
his  desire.  The  yirtues  depend  in  no  small  degree  on 
the  power  of  serial  and  complex  thinking.  Those 
vices  which  are  due  to  weakness  of  will  are  character- 
ized by  the  crudeness  of  the  aim  and  the  crudeness 
of  the  means. 

To  strengthen  the  will,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to 
give  to  the  person  of  weak  will  the  power  to  think 
connectedly,  and  especially  to  reach  an  end  by  long 
and  complex  trains  of  means. 

Let  us  pause  here  for  a  moment  to  elucidate  this 
point  by  briefly  considering  a  type  of  criminality  which 
is  familiar  to  all  guardians  of  delinquent  children. 
This  type  is  marked  by  a  group  of  salient  traits,  which 
may  be  roughly  described  as  follows :  Mental  incoher- 
ency  is  the  first.  The  thoughts  of  the  child  are,  as  it 
were,  slippery,  tending  to  glide  past  one  another 
without  mutual  attachments.  A  second  trait  is  indo- 
lence. A  third,  deficiency  in  the  sense  of  shame ;  to 
which  may  be  added  that  the  severest  punishments 
fail  to  act  as  deterrents. 

Mental  incoherency  is  the  leading  trait,  and  supplies 
the  key  for  the  understanding  of  the  others.  Lack  of 
connectedness  between  ideas  is  the  radical  defect. 
Each  idea,  as  it  rises,  becomes  an  impulse,  and  takes 
effect  to  the  full  limit  of  its  suggestions.  A  kind 
thought  rises  in  the  mind  of  such  a  child,  and  issues 
in  a  demonstrative    impulse    of  affection.      Shortly 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  MANUAL  TRAINING.  261 

after,  a  cruel  thought  may  rise  in  the  mind  of 
the  same  child ;  and  the  cruel  thought  will,  in  like 
manner,  take  effect  in  a  cruel  act.  Children  answer- 
ing to  this  type  are  alternately  kind,  affectionate,  and 
cruel.  The  child's  indolence  is  due  to  the  same  cause 
— lack  of  connectedness  between  ideas.  It  is  incapa- 
ble of  sustained  effort,  because  every  task  implies  the 
ability  to  pass  from  one  idea  to  related  ideas.  The 
child  is  deficient  in  shame,  because  the  sense  of  shame 
depends  on  a  vivid  realization  of  the  idea  of  self.  The 
idea  of  self,  however,  is  a  complex  idea,  which  is  not 
distinctly  and  clearly  present  to  such  a  child.  Lastly, 
the  most  severe  punishments  fail  to  act  as  deterrents 
for  the  same  reason.  The  two  impressions  left  in  the 
mind,  "  I  did  a  wrong,"  "  I  suffered  a  pain,"  lie  apart. 
The  memory  of  one  does  not  excite  the  recollection  of 
the  other.  The  thought  of  the  wrong  does  not  lift 
permanently  into  consciousness  the  thought  of  the 
pain  which  followed.  The  punishment,  as  we  say,  is 
quickly  forgotten.  If,  therefore,  we  wish  to  remedy  a 
deep-seated  defect  of  this  kind,  if  we  wish  to  cure  a 
weak  will,  in  such  and  all  similar  cases  we  must  seek 
to  establish  a  closer  connection  between  the  child's 
ideas. 

The  question  may  now  be  asked,  Why  should  we 
not  utilize  to  this  end  the  ordinary  studies  of  the 
school  curriculum — history,  geography,  arithmetic, 
etc.  ?  All  of  these  branches  exercise  and  develop  the 
faculty  of  serial  and  complex  thinking.  Any  sum  in 
multiplication  gives  a  training  of  this  kind.  Let  the 
task  be  to  multiply  a  multiplicand  of  four  figures  by  a 
multiplier  of  three.     First  the  child  must  multiply 


262       MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF   CHILDREN. 

every  figure  in  the  multiplicand  by  the  units  of  the 
multiplier  and  write  down  the  result;  then  by  the 
tens,  and  then  by  the  hundreds,  and  combine  these 
results.  Here  is  a  lesson  in  combination,  in  serial,  and, 
for  a  young  child,  somewhat  complex  thinking.  Let 
the  task  be  to  bound  the  State  of  New  York.  The  child 
must  see  the  mental  picture  of  the  State  in  its  relation 
to  other  States  and  parts  of  States,  to  lakes  and  rivers 
and  mountains — a  complex  group  of  ideas.  Or,  let 
it  be  required  to  give  a  brief  account  of  the  American 
Revolution.  Here  is  a  whole  series  of  events,  each 
depending  on  the  preceding  ones.  Why,  then,  may 
we  not  content  ourselves  with  utilizing  the  ordinary 
studies  of  the  school  curriculum?  There  are  two 
reasons. 

First,  because  history,  geography,  and  arithmetic 
are  not,  as  a  rule,  interesting  to  young  children, 
especially  not  to  young  children  of  the  class  with 
which  we  are  now  dealing.  These  listless  minds  are 
not  easily  roused  to  an  interest  in  abstractions. 
Secondly,  it  is  a  notorious  fact  that  intellectual  culture, 
pure  and  simple,  is  quite  consistent  with  weakness  of 
the  will.  A  person  may  have  very  high  intellectual 
attainments,  and  yet  be  morally  deficient.  I  need 
hardly  warn  my  reflective  hearers  that,  when  em- 
phasizing the  importance  for  the  will  of  intellectual 
culture,  I  had  ii^^^  mind  the  intellectual  process  as 
applied  to  acts.  To  cultivate  the  intellect  in  its  own 
sphere  of  contemplation  and  abstraction,  apart  from 
action,  may  leave  the  will  precisely  as  feeble  as  it  was 
before. 

And  now,  all  that  has  been  said   thus   far   con- 


THE  INFLUENCE   OF  MANUAL  TRAINING.  263 

verges  upon  the  point  that  has  been  in  view  from  the 
beginning — the  importance  of  manual  training  as  an 
element  in  disciplining  the  will.  Manual  training 
fulfills  the  conditions  I  have  just  alluded  to.  It  is 
interesting  to  the  young,  as  history,  geography,  and 
arithmetic  often  are  not.  Precisely  those  pupils  who 
take  the  least  interest  or  show  the  least  aptitude  for 
literary  study  are  often  the  most  proficient  in  the 
workshop  and  the  modeling-room.  Nature  has  not 
left  these  neglected  children  without  beautiful  com- 
pensations. If  they  are  deficient  in  intellectual 
power,  they  are  all  the  more  capable  of  being  de- 
veloped on  their  active  side.  Thus,  manual  training 
fulfills  the  one  essential  condition — it  is  interesting. 
It  also  fulfills  the  second.  By  manual  training  we 
cultivate  the  intellect  in  close  connection  with  action. 
Manual  training  consists  of  a  series  of  actions  which 
are  controlled  by  the  mind,  and  which  react  on  it. 
Let  the  task  assigned  be,  for  instance,  the  making  of 
a  wooden  box.  The  first  point  to  be  gained  is  to 
attract  the  attention  of  the  pupil  to  the  task.'  A 
wooden  box  is  interesting  to  a  child,  hence  this  first 
point  will  be  gained.  Lethargy  is  overcome,  atten- 
tion is  aroused.  Next,  it  is  important  to  keep  the 
attention  fixed  on  the  task :  thus  only  can  tenacity 
of  purpose  be  cultivated.  Manual  training  enables  us 
to  keep  the  attention  of  the  child  fixed  upon  the 
object  of  study,  because  the  latter  is  concrete. 
Furthermore,  the  variety  of  occupations  which  enter 
into  the  making  of  the  box  constantly  refreshes  this 
interest  after  it  has  once  been  started.  The  wood 
must  be  sawed  to  line.     The  boards  must  be  carefully 


264       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF   CHILDREN. 

planed  and  smoothed.  The  jomts  must  be  accurately 
worked  out  and  fitted.  The  lid  must  be  attached 
with  hinges.  The  box  must  be  painted  or  varnished. 
Here  is  a  sequence  of  means  leading  to  an  end,  a  se- 
ries of  operations  all  pointing  to  a  final  object  to  be 
gained,  to  be  created.  Again,  each  of  these  means 
becomes  in  turn  and  for  the  time  being  a  secondary 
end ;  and  the  pupil  thus  learns,  in  an  elementary  way, 
the  lesson  of  subordinating  minor  ends  to  a  major 
end.  And,  When  finally  the  task  is  done,  when  the 
box  stands  before  the  boy's  eyes  a  complete  whole,  a 
serviceable  thing,  sightly  to  the  eyes,  well  adapted  to 
its  uses,  with  what  a  glow  of  triumph  does  he  con- 
template his  work  !  The  pleasure  of  achievement  now 
comes  in  to  crown  his  labor ;  and  this  sense  of 
achievement,  in  connection  with  the  work  done, 
leaves  in  his  mind  a  pleasant  after-taste,  which  will 
stimulate  him  to  similar  work  in  the  future.  The 
child  that  has  once  acquired,  in  connection  with  the 
making  of  a  box,  the  habits  just  described,  has  begun 
to  master  the  secret  of  a  strong  will,  and  will  be  able 
to  apply  the  same  habits  in  other  directions  and  on 
other  occasions. 

Or  let  the  task  be  an  artistic  one.  And  let  me 
here  say  that  manual  training  is  incomplete  unless  it 
covers  art  training.  Many  otherwise  excellent  and 
interesting  experiments  in  manual  training  fail  to 
give  satisfaction  because  they  do  not  include  this 
element.  The  useful  must  flower  into  the  beautiful, 
to  be  in  the  highest  sense  useful.  N^or  is  it  necessary 
to  remind  those  who  have  given  attention  to  the 
subject  of  education  how  important  is  the  influence  of 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF   MANUAL  TRAINING.  265 

the  beautiful  is  in  refining  the  sentiments  and  elevating 
the  nature  of  the  young.  Let  the  task,  then,  be  to 
model  a  leaf,  a  vase,  a  hand,  a  head.  Here  again  we 
behold  the  same  advantages  as  in  the  making  of  the 
box.  The  object  is  concrete,  and  therefore  suitable 
for  minds  incapable  of  grasping  abstractions.  The 
object  can  be  constantly  kept  before  the  pupil's  eyes. 
There  is  gradual  approximation  toward  completeness, 
and  at  last  that  glow  of  triumph  !  What  child  is  not 
happy  if  he  has  produced  something  tangible,  some- 
thing that  is  the  outgrowth  of  his  own  activity,  espe- 
cially if  it  be  something  which  is  charming  to  every 
beholder  ? 

And  now  let  me  briefly  summarize  certain  con- 
clusions to  which  reflection  has  led  me  in  regard  to 
the  subject  of  manual  training  in  reformatory  institu- 
tions. Manual  training  should  be  introduced  into 
every  reformatory.  In  New  York  city  we  have  tested 
a  system  of  work-shop  lessons  for  children  between  six 
and  fourteen.  There  is,  I  am  persuaded,  no  reason 
why  manual  training  should  not  be  applied  to  the 
youngest  children  in  reformatories.  Manual  training 
should  always  include  art  training.  The  labor  of  the 
children  of  reformatories  should  never  be  let  to  contract- 
ors. I  heartily  agree  with  what  was  said  on  that  sub- 
ject this  morning.  The  pupils  of  reformatories  should 
never  make  heads  of  pins  or  the  ninetieth  fraction  of 
a  shoe.  Let  there  be  no  machine  work.  Let  the  pu- 
pils turn  out  complete  articles,  for  only  thus  can  the 
full  intellectual  and  moral  benefits  of  manual  training 
be  reaped.  Agriculture,  wherever  the  opportunities 
are  favorable,  ofliers,  on  the  whole,  the  same  advan- 


266       MORAL   INSTRUCTION  OF  CHILDREN. 

tages  as  manual  training,  and  should  be  employed  if 
possible,  in  connection  with  it. 

I  have  thus  far  attempted  to  show  how  the  will 
can  be  made  strong.  But  a  strong  will  is  not  neces- 
sarily a  good  will.  It  is  true,  there  are  influences  in 
manual  training,  as  it  has  been  described,  which  are 
favorable  to  a  virtuous  disposition.  Squareness  in 
things  is  not  without  relation  to  squareness  in  action 
and  in  thinking.  A  child  that  has  learned  to  be  exact 
— that  is,  truthful — in  his  work  will  be  predisposed  to 
be  scrupulous  and  truthful  in  his  speech,  in  his 
thought,  in  his  acts.  The  refining  and  elevating  in- 
influence  of  artistic  work  I  have  already  mentioned. 
But,  along  with  and  over  and  above  all  these  influ- 
ences, I  need  hardly  say  to  you  that,  in  the  remarks 
which  I  have  offered  this  evening,  I  have  all  along 
taken  for  granted  the  continued  application  of  those 
tried  and  excellent  methods  which  prevail  in  our  best 
reformatories.  I  have  taken  for  granted  that  isolation 
from  society,  which  shuts  out  temptation  ;  that  routine 
of  institutional  life,  which  induces  regularity  of  habit ; 
that  strict  surveillance  of  the  whole  body  of  inmates 
and  of  every  individual,  w^hich  prevents  excesses  of 
the  passions,  and  therefore,  starves  them  into  disuse. 
I  have  taken  for  granted  the  cultivation  of  the  emo- 
tions, the  importance  of  which  I  am  the  last  to  under- 
value. I  have  taken  for  granted  the  influence  of  good 
example,  good  literature,  good  music,  poetry,  and  re- 
ligion. All  I  have  intended  to  urge  is  that  between  good 
feeling  and  the  realization  of  good  feeling  there  exists, 
in  persons  w^hose  will-power  is  weak,  a  hiatus,  and  that 
manual  training  is  admirably  adapted  to  fill  that  hiatus. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  MANUAL  TRAINING.  207 

There  is  another  advantage  to  be  noted  in  connec- 
tion with  manual  training — namely,  that  it  develops 
the  property  sense.  What,  after  all,  apart  from  arti- 
ficial social  convention,  is  the  foundation  of  the  right 
of  property  ?  On  what  basis  does  it  rest  ?  I  have  a 
proprietary  right  in  my  own  thoughts.  I  have  a  right 
to  follow  my  tastes  in  the  adornment  of  my  person 
and  my  house.  I  have. a  right  to  the  whole  sphere  of 
my  individuality,  my  selfhood ;  and  I  have  a  right  in 
things  so  far  as  I  use  them  to  express  my  personality. 
The  child  that  has  made  a  wooden  box  has  put  a  part 
of  himself  into  the  making  of  that  box — his  thought, 
his  patience,  his  skill,  his  toil — and  therefore  the  child 
feels  that  that  box  is  in  a  certain  sense  his  own.  And 
as  only  those  who  have  the  sense  of  ownership  are  like- 
ly to  respect  the  right  of  ownership  in  others,  we  may 
by  manual  training  cultivate  the  property  sense  of  the 
child  ;  and  this,  in  the  case  of  the  delinquent  child, 
it  will  be  admitted,  is  no  small  advantage. 

I  have  confined  myself  till  now  to  speaking  of  the 
importance  of  manual  training  in  its  influence  on  the 
character  of  delinquent  children.  I  wish  to  add  a  few 
words  touching  the  influence  of  manual  training  on 
character  in  general,  and  its  importance  for  children 
of  all  classes  of  society.  I  need  not  here  speak  of  the 
value  of  manual  training  to  the  artisan  class.  That 
has  been  amply  demonstrated  of  late  by  the  many 
technical  and  art  scliools  which  the  leading  manu- 
facturing nations  of  Europe  have  established  and  are 
establishing.  I  need  not  speak  of  the  value  of  manual 
training  to  the  future  surgeon,  dentist,  scientist,  and 
to  all  those  who  require  deftness  of  hand  in  the  pur- 


268       MORAL  INSTRUCTION  OF   CHILDREN. 

suit  of  their  vocations.  But  I  do  wish  to  speak  of  the 
vahie  of  manual  training  to  the  future  lawyer  and 
clergyman,  and  to  all  those  who  will  perhaps  never  be 
called  upon  to  labor  with  their  hands.  Precisely  be- 
cause they  will  not  labor  with  their  hands  is  manual 
training  so  important  for  them — in  the  interest  of  an 
all-round  culture — in  order  that  they  may  not  be  en- 
tirely crippled  on  one  side  of  their  nature.  The  Greek 
legend  says  that  the  giant  Antaeus  was  invincible  so 
long  as  his  feet  were  planted  on  the  solid  earth.  We 
need  to  have  a  care  that  our  civilization  shall  remain 
planted  on  the  solid  earth.  There  is  danger  lest  it 
may  be  developed  too  much  into  the  air — that  we  may 
become  too  much  separated  from  those  primal  sources 
of  strength  from  which  mankind  has  always  drawn 
its  vitality.  The  English  nobility  have  deliberately 
adopted  hunting  as  their  favorite  pastime.  They  fol- 
low as  a  matter  of  physical  exercise,  in  order  to  keep 
up  their  physical  strength,  a  pursuit  which  the  savage 
man  followed  from  necessity.  The  introduction  of 
athletics  in  colleges  is  a  move  in  the  same  direction. 
But  it  is  not  sufficient  to  maintain  our  physical 
strength,  our  brute  strength,  the  strength  of  limb  and 
muscle.  A¥e  must  also  preserve  that  spiritualized 
strength  which  we  call  skill — the  tool-using  faculty, 
the  power  of  impressing  on  matter  the  stamp  of  mind. 
And  the  more  machinery  takes  the  place  of  human 
labor,  the  more  necessary  will  it  be  to  resort  to  manual 
training  as  a  means  of  keeping  up  skill,  precisely  as 
we  have  resorted  to  athletics  as  a  means  of  keeping 
up  strength. 

There  is  one  word  more  I  have  to  say  in  closing. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  MANUAL  TRAINING.  269 

Twenty-five  years  ago,  as  the  recent  memories  of  Get- 
tysburg recall  to  us,  we  fought  to  keep  this  people  a 
united  nation.  Then  was  State  arrayed  against  State. 
To-day  class  is  beginning  to  be  arrayed  against  class. 
The  danger  is  not  yet  imminent,  but  it  is  sufficiently 
great  to  give  us  thought.  The  chief  source  of  the 
danger,  I  think,  lies  in  this,  that  the  two  classes  of 
society  have  become  so  widely  separated  by  difference 
of  interests  and  pursuits  that  they  no  longer  fully 
understand  one  another,  and  misunderstanding  is  the 
fruitful  source  of  hatred  and  dissension.  This  must  not 
continue.  The  manual  laborer  must  have  time  and 
opportunity  for  intellectual  improvement.  The  intel- 
lectual classes,  on  the  other  hand,  must  learn  manual 
labor ;  and  this  they  can  best  do  in  early  youth,  in  the 
school,  before  the  differentiation  of  pursuits  has  yet 
begun.  Our  common  schools  are  rightly  so  named. 
The  justification  of  their  support  by  the  State  is 
not,  I  think,  as  is  sometimes  argued,  that  the  State 
should  give  a  sufficient  education  to  each  voter  to  en- 
able him  at  least  to  read  the  ballot  which  he  deposits. 
This  is  but  a  poor  equipment  for  citizenship  at  best. 
The  justification  for  the  existence  of  our  common 
schools  lies  rather  in  the  bond  of  common  feeling 
which  they  create  between  the  different  classes  of  so- 
ciety. And  it  is  this  bond  of  common  feeling  woven 
in  childhood  that  has  kept  and  must  keep  us  a  united 
people.  Let  manual  training,  therefore,  be  introduced 
into  the  common  schools;  let  the  son  of  the  rich  man 
learn,  side  by  side  with  the  son  of  the  poor  man,  to 
labor  with  his  hands;  let  hfm  thus  practically  learn 
to  respect  labor ;  let  him  learn  to  understand  what  the 


270       MORAL  INSTRUCTION   OF  CHILDREN. 

dignity  of  manual  labor  really  means,  and  the  two 
classes  of  society,  united  at  the  root,  will  never  there- 
after entirely  grow  asunder. 

A  short  time  ago  I  spent  an  afternoon  with  a  poet 
whose  fame  is  familiar  to  all.  There  was  present  in 
the  company  a  gentleman  of  large  means,  who,  in  the 
course  of  conversation,  descanted  upon  the  merits  of 
the  protective  system,  and  spoke  in  glowing  terms  of 
the  growth  of  the  industries  of  his  State  and  of  the 
immense  wealth  which  is  being  accumulated  in  its 
large  cities.  The  aged  poet  turned  to  him,  and  said  : 
"  That  is  all  very  well.  I  like  your  industries  and 
your  factories  and  your  wealth  ;  but,  tell  me,  do  they 
turn  out  men  down  your  way  ?  "  That  is  the  question 
which  we  are  bound  to  consider.  Is  this  civilization 
of  ours  turning  out  men — manly  men  and  womanly 
women  ?  Now,  it  is  a  cheering  and  encouraging 
thought  that  technical  labor,  which  is  the  source  of 
our  material  aggrandizement,  may  also  become,  when 
employed  in  the  education  of  the  young,  the  means  of 
enlarging  their  manhood,  quickening  their  intellect, 
and  strengthening  their  character. 


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College,  Cambridge. 
"It  is  astonishing  how  interesting  such  a  book  can  be  made  when  the  author  has  a 
perfect  mastery  of  his  subject,  as  Mr.  Glazebrook  has.      One  knows  nothing  of  the 
world  in  which  he  lives  until  he  has  obtained  some  insight  of  the  properties  of  matter 
as  explained  in  this  excellent  work." — Chicago  Herald. 

Y^HE  FA  UNA  OF  THE  DEEP  SEA.    By  Sydney 

-»        J.  HiCKSON,  M.  A.,  Fellow  of  Downing   College,  Cambridge. 

With  23  Illustrations. 

"  That  realm  of  mystery  and  wonders  at  the  bottom  of  the  great  waters  is  gradually 

being  mapped  and  explored  and  studied  until  its  secrets  seem  no  longer  secrets.  .  .  . 

This  excfillent  book  has  a  score  of  illustrations  and  a  careful  index  to  add  to  its  value, 

and  in  every  way  is  to  be  commended  for  its  interest  and  its  scientific  merit." — Chicago 

Times. 

Each,  i2mo,  cloth,  $1.00. 


E 


T 


New  York :  D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  72  Fifth  Avenue. 


GENERAL  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA— BERKELEY 

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DEC  1 6  1955 

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